Construction of a G+1 Residential House

Excavation for Foundation

Placing of Footing Reinforcement

Concreting of Footing

Concreting of column is done 

Excavation for Plinth Beam

Excavation for Plinth Beam

Brickwork above Damp Proof Course

Brickwork Completed above DPC

Filling is done and leveled with the help of a JCB Backhoe

Plinth Beam is Constructed

Shuttering ready to be Placed on Columns

Shuttering of Column in Progress

Shuttering for Staircase

Concreting of Staircase

Staircase Completed till Mid-Landing

Bored Water Connection on Site

Slab Centering (Wooden Ballies)

Slab Shuttering (from bottom)

Slab Shuttering (from top)

Cutting of Steel

Staircase Shuttering up to 1st Floor

Placing of Stirrups (Rings) in Beams

Laying of Staircase Reinforcement

Beam Reinforcement  is almost Ready

Beam Reinforcement is laid down after its Checking

Junction

Laying of Slab Reinforcement

Slab Reinforcement is Ready and Electrical PVC Conduit Pipes are also Set in Position

Open Slab According to Architectural Drawing

Precast Concrete Cover Blocks

Placing of Cover Blocks

Ready for Concreting!

Concrete Mixer

‘ACC Concrete Plus’ Cement Bags 

Concreting of Slab In Process

Unloading of Bucket

Laying of Concrete on Slab

Leveling of Concrete

After Concrete has Hardened

After Concrete has Hardened

After Deshuttering

Shuttering of Column

Centering for 1st Floor Slab

Staircase Shuttering

Staircase Reinforcement

Beam Reinforcement is Ready to be Laid Down

Junction

Concreting of 1st Floor Slab

Making of Ponds (Vaata 0r Ala) for Curing of Slab

Starting of Brickwork

Flemish Bond

Deshuttering of 1st Floor Slab

Placing of Doors in Position

Lintel Reinforcement

Lintel After Concreting

Chajja Reinforcement

 

 

Repairs to Plaster

• The masonry joints which become exposed after removal of old plaster are raked out to a minimum depth of 10 mm in the case of brickwork and 20 mm in case of stonework.
• The loose mortar is dusted off and the surface thoroughly washed with water and kept wet till plastering is commenced.
• Concrete surfaces are thoroughly scrubbed with wire brushes after the plaster had been cut out and pock marked; surface cleaned and thoroughly washed and kept wet till plastering is started.

Repairs to Damaged RCC Columns and Beams

• The structure which as cracked, or where reinforcement has deteriorated can be repaired by guniting.
• Any existing plaster on RCC work is removed and surface roughened with foot marks at least 6 mm deep at close intervals not more than 1 cm centre to form a band for the cement gunite plaster.
• All cracks are opened out to maximum depth possible in V shape and surface cleaned of all loose mortar and foreign matter.
• Reinforcement bars are cleaned to remove all scales and rust by wire brushing and by rubbing with emery paper.
• A coat of neat cement slurry is applied on the existing reinforcement after cleaning it just before the guniting is done.
• Guniting is a mixture of cement and sand deposited in the form of cement plaster ranging from 12 mm to 50 mm thick for a walls and 100 mm for floors, ejected under a pressure of 2 to 3 kg/sq.cm. from a ‘cement gun’.
• The cement and sand are mixed almost dry through a hose and water just sufficient for the purpose of hydration added at the nozzle.
• A separate hose carries the water to the nozzle under a pressure of 1 to 1.5 kg/sq.cm., and the nozzle man regulates the quantity by means of a hand operated valve.

 

Repairs to Leakage in Lavatory Rooms

• Where roof slab of lavatory is found to be leaky, it may be that joints between soil pipes and the accessories are not done properly due to which waste water leaks through the joints.
• But in many other cases, it is found that the joints are all properly laid and yet the waste water leaks through the roof.
• On minute observation, it is found that the porcelain P or S traps are cracked, through which the waste water leaks through the roof.
• The reason for the porcelain trap to get cracked, is that when the waste matter does not pass through the soil pipe properly and the waste gets accumulated in the water closet, the cleaner tries to clean the trap with a wooden stick or an iron rod and during the process the trap gets cracked.
• The cracked traps should be replaced with new ones.

Repairs to Damaged RCC Roof Slab

• Where concrete with plaster below reinforcement of RCC roof has fallen down and the exposed reinforcement has become rusty – this may be due to leaky roof, where water has entered concrete and rusted the reinforcement.
• Or, it may be because of salty water of sand used in the concrete.
• Whatever may be the reason, the best remedy is to provide either wooden or precast RCC battens at 45 cm centers supporting the roof with 23 cm bearing on wall. (The size of battens should be calculated to take the roof and slab loads)
• the roof slab in-between rafter shall be plastered with 1:3 cement mortar 5 cm thick.
• This will ensure a long life to the roof slab.
• To prevent further leakage of water, a new weather proofing course shall be laid on the roof slab.
• Cracks in the slab should be grouted with cement mortar.

Removal of Walls in Existing Building to Increase the Size of Room

• Keeping the existing roof as it is, if the load bearing wall is to be removed, then it is necessary to find out the weight of the roof coming on the wall and also the weight of the wall if any on the next floor.
• After calculating the weight, the size of the steel girder that could support the weight is decided.
• It is necessary to verify if the side walls on which the girder would be resting will be able to carry the load from the girder.
• In case of doubt, it is necessary to remove at least 45cm width of existing wall at the point of support and erect new brick pillar in cement mortar for a width of 45cm and thickness equivalent to the thickness of the wall or 35cm whichever is greater.
• Before removing the wall, the roof should be supported with runners and wooden posts.
• It is always safer to provide two steel girders of equal size in the place of the wall so that for placing one girder only half the thickness of wall abutting the roof need to be broken and the girder placed in position.
• The next day, the other half thickness of the wall is broken and the second girder is placed in position.
• This method of working ensures safety to the building.

Materials

• Bricks and tiles shall be taken in numbers stating the size and quality under the different classification as first class, second class, etc.
• Bricks are stacked by 1000 in each stack and stacks are numbered and the number of stacks are entered in the measurement book.
• The following materials shall be taken in cu.m. and measurement shall be taken in bottomless boxes or ‘firmas’ or closed packed stacks prepared on level ground, stating the size, gauge, quality, type, etc.
• Sand, surkhi, cinder, bajri, kankar, lime, brick ballast, brick bats, boulder, stone ballasts, kankar, gravel, shingle, stone grit, etc. Different item of materials shall be taken separately.
• White lime or stone lime slaked or unslaked shall be measured by weight in kg or quintal and described. Slaked lime may also be measured in cu.m. if specified.
• Cement shall be measured by weight in 50 kg bag in quintal or tonne. Loose cement in small quantities shall be measured by weight in kg.
• Breaking of stone, brick, etc., shall be measured in cu.m. in bottomless box or stacks as in road metal stating the size and shall include stacking.
• Screening of ballast, grit, sand, etc., shall be measured in cu.m.
• Steel of small sizes or sections of steel are measured by weight in kg or quintal by actual weighing.
• Large sizes or sections of steel are measured in length and weight is calculated in kg or quintal from steel section book by multiplying the weight per metre by the length.

Dismantling and Demolition

• The term dismantling implies carefully taking up or down and removing carefully without damage.
• The term demolition implies taking up or down or breaking up without any care.
• The units and methods of measurement of dismantling and demolition shall be generally the same as those employed for the construction of the respective item of work.
• Full description of work including necessary precautions and protections required shall be stated.
• Parts of work required to be dismantled and those required to be demolished, shall be measured separately.
• The description shall also include separation and stacking of serviceable materials and disposals of unserviceable materials within 30 m.
• Thickness of plaster shall be excluded in the measurement of wall.
• Dismantling of doors and windows shall be enumerated stating their size.
• Repairs: –

(a) The units and methods of measurement for repair works shall generally be the same as those employed for the construction of the item of work.

Electrical work

• Electrical wiring shall be taken in points as light point, fan point, plug point, etc., and shall be enumerated under different items and fully described.
• Wiring in different systems such as Tough rubber sheeted (T.R.S) on battens, Vulcanized insulated rubber (V.I.R.) in casing or capping, Vulcanized insulated rubber (V.I.R.) in conduits, etc., shall be fully described and taken separately.
• These shall be further classified according to the size of the cable used, number of wire and size in the cable shall be described under each classification.
• Point wiring shall include all work necessary in complete wiring of a tumbler switch circuit and length from the tapping point on the distribution circuit to the various points as ceiling rose, lamp holder, back plate, call bell, etc., via the switch.
• Point wiring shall include switch, ceiling rose, wood and metal blocks, switch boards, battens, clips, nails, screws, joint and junction boxes, bulk head fittings, earth wire, etc.
• Lamps, brackets, lamp holders, shades, sockets, outlets, fans, regulators, call bells, fuses, main switch boards, etc., shall not be included in the point wiring but shall be enumerated separately and fully described.
• Classification: –

Point wiring shall be classified according to the length of wiring as

Short points	Not exceeding 3 m in length
Medium points	3 to 6 m in length
Long points	6 to 10 m in length
Special Points	Length exceeding 10m

• Circuit wiring: –

(a) The length of wiring from the main switch board to the sub-main board shall be considered as circuit wiring and shall be measured separately in running metre stating the type and size of wire.

• Service connection: –

(a) Service connection shall be fully described stating the type and size of the wire and shall be measured as follows

Insulated cables	In running metre
Bare cables	In kg or quintal

(b) All over-head bare wire or cables shall be measured in kg of the actual length fixed.

(c) Pole and struts for over-head links shall be enumerated and described stating the type, sectional size, girth or diameter and the total length.

(d) Steel brackets, cross-arms, clamps, etc., fixed to poles and struts shall be fully described and enumerated under separate item.

(e) Stay assemblies shall be enumerated and fully described including excavation, concrete, etc.

(f) Earthing poles and service connections shall be enumerated and fully described as including earth electrode, packing charcoal, earth wire, etc.

Sanitary and Water Supply Works

• All pipes and fitting should be classified according to their types, diameters, jointing and fixing.
• Pipes of different types and different types of joints shall be taken separately.
• The diameter shall be the nominal diameter of the internal bore.
• Pipes shall be measured in running meter net as laid or fixed with overall fittings such as bends, junctions, etc., which shall not be measured separately.
• The length shall be measured along the centre line of the pipes and fittings.
• Methods of laying and jointing shall be fully described.
• Testing of pipe line shall be included in the item.
• Leads caulked joints shall be enumerated separately.
• Digging and refilling of trenches, concrete bedding, etc., shall be either measured separately or clubbed with the main item.
• Usually for small diameter pipes the digging and refilling, timbering if required, concrete bedding, etc., are included with the main item and fully described.
• Fitting and appliances: –

(a) Gullies, syphons, intercepting traps, etc., including concrete bedding and setting in position shall be enumerated stating the size.

(b) Connection of fittings, elbows, bends, tees, connectors, unions, diminishing sockets and the like shall be enumerated.

(c) Cutting through walls, floors, etc., and making good shall be included with the item.

(d) Closet pans, urinals, flushing cisterns, lavatory basins, bath tubs, shower rose and other fittings shall be enumerated stating the size and fully described.

(e) Sluice valves, stop cocks, hydrants, surface boxes, water meters, etc., shall be described stating size and enumerated.

(f) Bib-cocks, pillar cocks, ball cocks, ferrules, grating, etc., shall be described stating the size and enumerated.

(g) Boilers, cisterns, cylinders, water tanks, etc., shall be enumerated stating the size, capacity, materials, etc., and fully described.

• Manholes: –

(a) Manholes up to 6m depth shall be enumerated stating the size and depth and shall include cast iron cover with frame (weight to be stated), foot iron, inverts, materials and mortar, framework, etc., all of which shall be fully described.

(b) Manholes shall be classified under three different groups as follows: –

Shallow	Up to 2.1m in depth
Deep	Above 2.1m and up to 4.2m in depth
Extra Deep	Above 4.2m and up to 6.0m in depth

(c) Manholes under each classification shall be enumerated separately stating the size and least depth and the extra depth shall be measured in running metre and totaled up separately for each classification and taken as ‘extra over’ under separate item following the main item.

(d) Depth shall be from the top of manhole to the invert of channel.

(e) Manholes exceeding 6 m in depth shall be measured in details under the various items of works, brickworks, concrete, C.I. cover with frame, etc.

Painting

• Painting shall be taken in sq.m. stating the number of coats and measurement shall be taken flat.
• Preparatory work as cleaning, rubbing down, removing, burning off, etc., shall be described.
• Different types of surfaces as steel, wood, fiber, board, concrete surface, etc., shall be measured under separate item.
• Painting in large area as roof, ceiling, etc., shall be kept separate and painting of small area as doors and windows, steel works, etc., shall each be taken under separate item.
• Corrugated surfaces shall be measured flat in sq.m. and percentage increase similar to white washing, etc., shall be added.
• Doors and windows: –

(a) Painting of door and window shall be measured closed and flat, not girthed in sq.m. and shall include chaukhats, edges, cleats, etc.

(b) Different types of doors and windows as battened, paneled, glazed, etc., shall be grouped under one item and the areas of uneven surfaces shall be covered into equivalent plain area by multiplying the flat measured area by a multiplying factor.

(c) The coefficients or multiplying factors for different surfaces to get equivalent plain area are as given below: –

Particulars	Method of Measurement	Multiplying Factor
Doors and windows
1. Paneled, framed, and braced, ledged and battened, ledged battened and braced.	Measured flat not girthed including chaukhats, edges chocks, cleats, etc., shall be included in the item.	1 1/8 (for each side)
2. Fully glazed or gauged	Same as above	½ (for each side)
3. Part paneled and part glazed or gauged	Same as above	1 (for each side)
4. Flush door	Same as above	1 (for each side)
5. Flush venetioned or louvered	Same as above	1 ½ (for each side)
Miscellaneous works
6. Boarding with cover fillets and match boarding	Measured flat not girthed	1 1/20 (for each side)
7. Roof battens (tile or slate roof)	Measured flat overall, no deduction for open spaces	¾ (for painting all over)
8. Trallies or jaffri work one way or two way	Same as for (6) above. (Supporting members shall not be measured separately)	2 (for painting all over)
9. Guard bars, balustrates, grating, railings, grills, expanded metals, etc.	Measured flat overall no deduction for open spaces	1 (for painting all over)
10. Corrugated iron sheeting in roof	Measured flat not girthed	1.14 (for each side)
11. A.C. corrugated sheeting in roof	Measured flat not girthed	1.20 (for each side)
12. A.C. semi corrugated sheeting in roof	Measured flat not girthed	1.10 (for each side)
13. Steel rolling shutters	Measured flat not girthed	1 ¼ (for each side)

• Painting up to 15 cm in width or in girth and not in conjunction with similar work shall be measured in running meter.
• Painting on components of trusses, compound girders, stanchions, lattices and similar work shall be taken in sq.m. and measurement of perimeter and length shall be taken to get the area.
• Painting on caves, gutters, pipes, steel poles, etc., shall be measured in running meters stating the size and girth.
• Small articles, up to 0.1 sq.m., painted surface shall be enumerated and described.
• Painting of furniture shall be enumerated and fully described.
• Coal tarring shall be measured similar to painting.
• Varnishing of wood work shall be measured in the same way as for painting.
• Painting of letters or figures and similar items shall be enumerated stating height, form and style, namely block italics, etc. Stops, commas, hyphens and the like shall be deemed included in the item.

White Washing, Color Washing and Distempering

• All works falling under this shall be taken in sq.m.
• Preparation of surface as cleaning, brooming, scraping, etc., shall be included in the item.
• The items shall include repairs of surfaces as holes, cracks, patches, etc., not exceeding 0.1 sq.m. with materials similar to existing surface.
• Different types of work shall be measured separately and described.
• Deduction shall be dealt in the same way as for plastering.
• Finishing coat on corrugated surface shall be measured flat as fixed in sq.m. and not girthed and the quantities so measured shall be increased by the following percentages and added with the measured area: –

Corrugated iron sheet	14%
Corrugated asbestos cement sheet with large corrugations (as Big six sheets)	20%
Semi – corrugated asbestos cement sheets (as Trafford sheets)	10%

• Cornices and moldings, when these are not taken as separate item, shall be girthed and included in the wall measurement.

Plastering and Pointing

Plastering:

• Plastering shall be taken in sq.m. stating thickness, mortar and its mix.
• Plastering of roofs, ceilings, walls, etc., shall be measured under separate items.
• The measurement of all plastering shall be taken for the dimensions before plastering for length and from top to floor or skirting to the ceiling for height.
• Exterior plastering to a height greater than 10m from average ground level shall be measured separately in stages of 3 m.
• Plastering bands 30 cm or below shall be measured separately in running metre.
• Deductions:
• No deductions shall be made for ends of joists, beams, posts, etc., and openings not exceeding 0.5 sq.m. each and no addition shall be made for reveals, jambs, soffits, sills, etc. of these openings nor finishing plaster around ends of joists, beams, posts, etc.
• For openings exceeding 0.5 sq.m. but not exceeding 3 sq.m. each deduction shall be made for one face only, and the other face shall be allowed for jambs, soffits and sills which shall not be measured.
• When the two faces are plastered with different mortar or if one side is plastered the other pointed, deduction shall be made on the side of chaukhats of door and windows on which the width of jambs or reveals is less than on the side. (usually, deduction should be made for the outer face only)
• In case of openings of area above 3 sq.m., each deduction shall be made for both faces of the openings, and the jambs and sills shall be measured and added. In taking measurement of jambs, soffits and sills, chaukhats if any shall be neglected and the whole faces shall be measured.
• Molded cornices and caves shall be measured in running metre stating the girth and shall be fully described.

Pointing:

• Pointing shall be taken in sq.m. and measured of the whole surface area stating the type of pointing, mortar and its mix.
• Various types of pointing as, struck flush, keyed truck, etc., shall each be taken separately.
• Pointing of wall, floor, roof, etc., shall be kept separate.
• Raking of joints shall be included in the item.
• Deductions shall be dealt in the same way as in plastering.

Floors and Paving

• Floors and pavement shall be measured in sq.m. and net area covered shall be measured stating the thickness, kind of materials, size, mortar and its mix.
• The method of bedding, jointing and surface finishing shall be described including the formwork.
• Different kind of flooring as brick flat, brick on-edge stone, marble, cement concrete, mosaic, terrazzo, etc., shall be taken under separate item.
• The surface finishing of cement concrete floor shall be measured in sq.m. separately unless otherwise stated and fully described.
• In practice the surface finishing of cement concrete floor with floating coat of neat cement is usually included in the item.
• The rubbing and polishing of mosaic, terrazzo, marble or stone floor are usually, included in the item.
• Pointing of brick floor shall be measured in sq.m. separately unless otherwise stated.
• Under layer of lime concrete, or cement concrete sand, etc., shall be described and measured separately in cu.m. unless otherwise stated.
• Skirting and dado – Skirting up to 30 cm in height shall be measured in running metre and skirting or dado exceeding 30 cm shall be measured in sq.m. stating the type of finish.

Ceiling

• Ceiling shall be taken in sq.m. and the materials thickness and the method of fixing shall be described.
• No deduction shall be made for opening not exceeding 0.4 sq.m.
• Different kind of ceiling shall be kept separate.
• Cover fillets or beading over joints shall be measured separately in running metre stating the materials width and thickness.
• If the edges of fillets are chamfered or rounded or molded, this shall be described.
• Supporting member shall be measured separately under the respective items.
• Insulation layer, boards or slabs in walls or roof shall be taken in sq.m. stating the materials, number of layers, thickness of each layer and the manner of fixing.

Steel and iron work

• In general, steel and iron work shall be measured by weight in quintal and fully described.
• Various items of rolled steel sections as joints, channels, angles, tees, mild steel rounds, slats, bolts, cast iron, wrought iron, etc., shall be measured under separate items.
• Structural steel works:

(a) Structural steel works as girders, compound girders, plate and lattice girders, steel stanchions, trusses, framed steel work, etc., shall each be taken under separate item and measured in quintal and fully described.

(b) No deduction shall be made for rivet and bolt holes.

(c) In riveted work, the weight of rivet heads, except in case of countersunk rivets, shall be added.

(d) The weights of cleats, brackets, packing pieces, separators, gusset and fish plates, bolts and nuts, rivet heads, etc., shall be added to the weight of the respective items.

(e) The work shall include fabrication, hoisting, placing, fixing in position.

(f) Site drilling to existing steel work shall be enumerated stating the diameter of bolts and thickness of metal.

(g) Rivets driven at site shall be enumerated as ‘extra over’.

• Bolts:

(a) Bolts, holding down bolts, anchor bolts, etc. shall be measured in quintal separately including nuts and head, and washers shall be grouped according to the diameter.

(b) Grills grating, framed guard bars, ladders, brackets, etc., shall be measured in quintals separately and shall be fully described.

(c) If specified grills, grating, etc., may be taken in sq.m. and fully described.

(d) Iron hold fasts shall be taken by weight in quintal, or enumerated stating the length, breadth and thickness of flat iron.

(e) The method of fixing with bolt of screw and embedding in cement concrete or cement mortar shall be described and included in the item.

(f) Flue pipes shall be measured in running metre stating the diameter and the type of pipe, gauge or weight per unit length and method of jointing and fixing shall be described.

(g) Cast iron balusters and newels shall be enumerated and fully described including the methods of fixing.

(h) Cast iron railings shall be measured in running metre stating the height and fully described including the method of fixing.

• Spiral staircase:

(a) Cast iron spiral staircase shall be enumerated (i.e., counted as one for complete work) stating the overall diameter, total number of treads and total height above ground level.

(b) The description shall include tread, riser and sleeves in one piece, including hand rails, balusters, etc.

(c) Cast iron chequered plates shall be described and measured in quintal.

(d) Expanded metal, wire netting, etc., shall be measured in sq.m. stating gauge and mesh.

(e) No deduction shall be made for opening up to 0.2 sq.m.

(f) Different items shall be kept separate.

• Steel reinforcement:

(a) Bar reinforcement shall be measured by weight in quintal stating the diameter and shall include cutting to length, hooked ends, cranking or bending, etc.

(b) Authorized overlaps shall be measured.

(c) Different diameter bars shall be kept separate.

(d) Binding wire shall not be measured separately, this shall be included in the item.

(e) Fabric reinforcement shall be taken in sq.m. stating the mesh and size of standard.

(f) Wire netting in wrappings to steel work embedded in concrete or plaster, in encasing steel work shall be measured separately in sq.m. stating the mesh and gauge.

(g) Hoop iron shall be measured in running metre stating the width and gauge.

Woodwork

• Carpenter’s work:

(a) Generally, all woodwork of which the scantling exceeds 20 sq.cm. in section and which is not specially molded or carved comes under carpenter’s work.

(b) This includes all timber work in door and window chaukhats, in roof works as beams, struts, ties, rafters, purlins, (all work in roof trusses), in timber bridge, in verandah posts, in centering and shuttering, in shoring and the like.

• Joinery:

(a) Woodwork which is prepared, turned, molded, carved and jointed together comes under joinery.

(b) Joiner’s work requires finishing and putting together at the bench and includes door and window shutters, framed partitions, furniture and the like.

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Carpenter’s work

• Different kind of wood and different nature of woodwork shall be taken under separate item and shall be fully described stating thee wood and the work.
• Woodwork (carpenter’s work) shall be taken in cu.m.
• Length shall be measured to nearest 2 cm.
• Width and thickness shall be measured to the nearest 2 mm.
• All works shall be measured net as fixed and tolerance of 2 mm may be allowed.
• No allowance shall be made for the sawn or wrought faces for the finished work.
• Scantling, battens, etc., in sections other than rectangular, shall be measured as the least rectangular form which the section can be obtained.
• All woodwork shall include nails, screws, spikes, etc., required for fixing.
• Boarding:

(a) Roof boarding, ceiling, floor, shelves, partitions, etc., shall be taken in sq.m. stating the finished thickness and shall be fully described.

(b) Supporting beams, frame work, shall be taken separately in cu.m.

• Centering and shuttering:

(a) Normally, centering and shuttering (formwork) shall not be measured separately but included in the rate of C.C. or R.C.C. work.

(b) If specified that the formwork shall be paid separately, the formwork shall be measured as the actual surface contact with the concrete and taken in sq.m. and shall include planking, beams, props, wedges, nails, etc.

(c) Formwork of different kind of works as beams, lintels, floors, roofs, walls, columns, staircases, etc., shall be measured under separate items and fully described.

(d) For slabs, chujjas, arches, shells and domes only the area of bottom shuttering in contact with concrete surface shall be measured and side shuttering shall not be taken into account.

• Roof battens:

(a) Roof battens, where not included with the item of roof, shall be taken as surface area of the roof in sq.m. stating the size of battens and the spacing.

• Fillets:

(a) Fillets, beadings, etc., shall be measured in running meter stating the width and thickness.

(a) Finishing of fillet as edge chamfered, rounded or molded shall be described.

• Ballies:

(a) Ballies shall be measured in running meter stating the mean diameter which shall be average of the two diameters at the ends.

• Wood piles:

(a) Wood piles shall be measured in running meter stating the size.

(b) Steel shoes and heads of piles shall be enumerated separately stating their weights.

• Sheet piles shall be measured separately in sq.m. stating the thickness and shall be described.
• Driving and pitching of whole piles shall be taken in running meter and sheet piles should be taken in sq.m. stating the size in each case.
• Portion in ground shall only be measured.

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Joinery

• Description and quality and kind of wood shall be stated and joinery of different kind of work shall be taken under separate items.
• Joinery work shall be taken in sq.m. of the surface stating the thickness.
• All joiner’s work shall include nails, screws, keys, wedges, pins, glue, etc., required for fitting and all fittings shall be included in item.
• Unless work is described as finished sizes, 2 mm shall be allowed for each wrought face.
• Door and window shutters:

(a) Shutter shall be taken in sq.m. stating the thickness and the kind of wood and both faces shall be described.

(b) Measurement shall be taken from inside after closing the shutters excluding chaukhats.

(c) Different types of shutters are:

(d) Ledged and battened,

(e) Ledged, braced and battened,

(f) Framed, ledged braced and battened,

(g) Framed and paneled,

(h) Framed and louvered,

(i) Flush,

(j) Glazed,

(k) Part paneled and part glazed, etc., shall be taken separately and each type fully described.

• Thickness of battened leave shall be the thickness of battens only, not the combined thickness of battens and ledges, the thickness of ledges and braces shall be stated in the description.
• Glazed shutters shall be measured flat over all in sq.m. including the timber frame work, stating the thickness of timber frame and of glass panes.
• Glazing shall not be measured separately.
• The method of fixing glass panes as puttied, felted, wooden beading fitted with nails, screws, etc., shall be described and different type of fixing shall be measured under separate item.
• Part paneled and part glazed shutters, shall be measured flat over all in sq.m. and how much part glazed as half, one-third, etc., shall be stated.
• Glass panes:

(a) For supply, glass panes shall be measured in sq.m. stating the thickness and type of glass.

(b) Measurement, length and breadth, shall be taken to the nearest 5 mm.

(c) Irregular or circular panes shall be measured at the smallest rectangular area from which they can be cut unless otherwise specified.

• Door and window chaukhats:

(a) Chaukhats, mullion and transoms shall be taken in cu.m. and the length of tenon, horns, etc., shall be added to the sight lengths.

(b) The sectional area shall be the area of the least square and rectangle from which they may be cut or made.

(c) Rebates, beads, chambers, etc., shall be described and included with the item.

(d) Portion of chaukhats of segmental or circular shape shall be measured separately and described.

(e) Type of wood shall be stated and chaukhats of different kind of wood shall be kept separate.

• Wooden staircase:

(a) Work of staircase shall be measured under separate heading.

(b) Landing including bearers shall be measured under a separate item in sq.m. of the upper surface, stating the thickness.

(c) Treads and risers shall be taken in sq.m. stating thickness, the area being obtained by multiplying the length of tread by the exposed width of the tread plus the rise from step to step and the work shall be described stating the kind of timber’s method of jointing, fixing, etc.

(d) Hand rails shall be taken in running meter and measured along the top centre line stating the extreme section of the straight portions and molding and rounding.

(e) Balusters shall be taken in numbers stating the size and shall include framing, at ends shall be fully described.

(f) Newels shall be described and measured in running meters stating the section and nature of finishing.

• Miscellaneous items:

(a) Towel rails, contain brackets, plate racks, toilet fixtures, small fittings, furniture, etc., shall be taken in numbers stating the size and shall be fully described.

• Builder’s hardware:

(a) Builder’s hardware is the trade name of the articles made of base metal as iron, steel, copper, etc.

(b) The various kinds of builder’s hardware shall be described and enumerated and taken separately according to the materials, finish, size and pattern.

(c) The following articles comes under builder’s hardware: –

-Hinges, door handles, hasp and staples, locks, hat pegs, hat and coat hooks, wardrobe hooks, knobs, springs, screwed eyes, cleats, latches, bolts and the like.

-Curtain rods or poles, curtain rails, rails for running sashes, etc., shall be measured in running meter stating diameter and size.

• Glazing:

(a) Glazing shall be measured in sq.m. stating the quality, weight and thickness.

(b) The method of glazing and fixing with putty, wooden beads, metal beads, etc., shall be fully described.

(c) Different kind of glass and different methods of fixing each shall be taken separately.

Stone Masonry

• The description of stone, materials of mortar and their proportions, and the nature and type of walling shall be stated.
• Different kind of stone masonry as Random or Uncoursed rubble walling, coursed rubble walling, ashlar walling, etc., shall be taken under separate items.
• Stone masonry work shall be taken in cu.m.
• The thickness of wall shall be measured to the nearest 1 cm, fractions including 0.5 cm and above shall be measured as 1 cm and fractions below 0.5 cm shall be ignored.
• Rules for deduction, measurement of an arch work and other items of stone masonry shall be same as for the similar items of brickwork.
• Stone face work or wall lining shall be described and taken in sq.m. stating the thickness.
• Stone chujjas, stone shelves, stone sun – shades and stone, slabs, shall be taken in sq.m. stating the thickness and described including dressing, etc.
• Dressed stone work in sills, steps, columns, copings, lintels, etc., shall be taken in cu.m. and the type of dressing shall be described fully.
• Each dressed stone shall be measured as the smallest rectangular dressed block from which finished dressed block can be worked.
• String course, cornices, etc., shall be measured in running metre describing details of sections.
• Boulder work shall be taken in cu.m. stating the size of boulders.
• Different kind and nature of boulder work shall be taken under separate item.

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The stone masonry in uncoursed rubble or coursed rubble, etc. shall be measured separately in cubic metres. Usually stone masonry in foundation and up to plinth (if of the same type) is included under one item and the masonry in superstructure is considered as separate item. For multi-storeyed buildings, the masonry at each floors is to be measured separately.

The procedure of calculating the net quantity of stone masonry is to assume all walls as solid and to calculate its cubic contents, and then deductions are to be made for the various openings such as doors, windows, ventilators, etc.

The rules of deduction for the openings in stone masonry are same as for openings in the brick work already explained in the topic ‘Brick Work’

The stone work for sill and parapet copings are measured in running meters, specifying the item fully in the description column.

The face stone work for weather sheds, shelves, slabs, etc. are measured in square metre.

 

Brick Work

• The description of the bricks, and the materials of mortar with proportion shall be stated.
• Different kind and classes of brickwork shall be taken under the separate items.
• The brickwork of foundation and plinth, of first floor, of second floor, etc. shall be measured under separate items.
• Scaffolding works are not measured separately but included in the item of brickwork.
• Brickwork shall be taken in cu.m. and measurements of length, breadth or thickness and height shall be taken to compute the quantity.
• The length and height shall be measured to the nearest 1 cm.
• Thickness of wall:

(a) Brick walls up to and including three bricks in thickness shall be measured in multiples of half brick, which shall be deemed to be inclusive of the mortar joint.

(b) The following shall be taken as half brick measurement: –

(c) For walls which are more than three brick in thickness, the actual thickness shall be measured to the nearest 1 cm (½”).

(d) Where fractions of half brick occur due to architectural or other reasons, the measurements shall be taken as follows: –

-For fractions of 2 cm under actual measurement.

-For fraction exceeding 2 cm – full half brick.

• Deduction:

(a) No deduction or addition shall be made for the following: –

-Opening up to 0.1 sq.m. in section.

-Ends of joints, beams, lintels, posts, rafters, purlins, corbels, steps, etc.

-Wall plates and bed plates, bearing of slabs, chujjas and the like where the thickness does not exceed 10 cm and the bearing does not extend over the full width (thickness) of wall.

• Partition wall or half brick wall shall be taken in sq.m.

 

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The size of the bricks, its type, thickness of the joints, bond, etc., and the proportion of mortar shall be specified in the description of the item.

The main brick work is measured in cubic metres, and brick work in partition i.e., one brick thickness is measured in square meter specifying its thickness. Brick masonry in foundation and up to plinth is included under one item and the brickwork in superstructure is measured separately. In case of multi-storeyed building, the brick work of each floor is to be measured separately as the rates of the item go on increasing from ground floor to subsequent higher floors.

The general procedure of calculating the quantities of brick work in superstructure is to assume all walls as solid and find out its cubic contents, and  then allow for the deductions for openings into it. Example: doors, windows, ventilators, lintels, etc. Different types of brick work with different proportion of mortar, etc. shall be measured separately.

Honey combed brick work is measured separately, specifying the thickness in square metres, no deductions being made for the holes in it.

Rules for deductions to be made for openings in brick wall are as follows:

• No deductions are to be made for openings up to 0.1 square metre areas, ends of beams, rafter, purlins, etc., up to 0.05 square metre in areas and wall plate, bed plates, etc., up to 100 mm depth.
• Full deductions are to be made for the rectangular openings by multiplying the length of the opening by its width and the thickness of the wall.
• The brick work in arches is to be measured separately.
• For lintels over openings, the length of the lintel is found out by adding twice the thickness for bearing to the clear span.

Thus the quantity of deduction to be made shall be equal to:

(l + 2t) x (Thickness of lintel) x (Wall thickness)

where t = Thickness of lintel and l = Length of  the opening.

It may be noted that lintels also from separate item to be measured in cubic metres. the quantity being equal to = (l + 2t) x t x Wall thickness

Brick work in columns and pillars shall be described fully and shall be measured separately in cubic metres.

Circular brick work above 6 m radius shall be measured in the general item of brick work in cubic metres.

Brick work in staircase, arches, etc. shall be measured separately in cubic metres.

Concrete

• For concrete kind, size, grading and proportion of materials, methods of mixing, cutting, etc., shall be described.
• Different kinds of concrete work as Lime concrete, Cement concrete, Reinforced cement concrete, etc., of different proportion, different materials shall be taken under separate items.
• Concrete foundation, roof, wall, mass concrete, etc., shall be classified and measured under separate items.
• Concrete shall be taken in cu.m., and the measurements of length, breadth and height or thickness shall be taken to the nearest 1 cm, except that the thickness of slabs, partitions, post, beams, and the like shall be measured to the nearest 0.5 cm.
• No deduction shall be made for opening up to 0.1 sq.m.
• Formwork, centering and shuttering shall be taken under separate item in sq.m. unless otherwise herein provided.
• Formwork shall be measured as the actual surface in contact with the concrete.
• For slabs, vertical sides (edges) shall not be measured.
• Fair finish to the exposed surface of concrete or hacking or roughening surfaces of concrete shall be included in the description and the thickness of finishing shall not be measured with the concrete.
• Special finishes, except precast concrete shall be measured separately in sq.m.
• C.C work:

(a) Reinforced cement concrete shall be kept separate from unreinforced concrete,

(b) C.C. work shall be taken in cu.m. excluding steel, and the steel reinforcement shall be measured under a separate item in quintal (cwt), authorized overlap hooks, cranks, etc. of bars shall be measured.

(c) Normally, centering and shuttering (formwork) shall not be measured separately but included in the rate of R.C.C. or C.C. work.

(d) Binding wire is not measured separately.

(e) The volume occupied by reinforcement shall not be deducted from the measured concrete volume.

(f) The item of R.C.C. work shall include R.C.C. slabs, beams, lintels, columns, chujjas, staircases, foundation, rafts and footings, etc. and each of them shall be classified under a separate item.

(g) The exposed surface shall be fair finished which shall not be measured separately.

(h) Chujjas may be measured in running meter stating the projection and its average thickness, if specified.

(i) Special light weight partitions shall be measured in sq.m. stating thickness and fully described.

• Precast cement concrete:

Precast C.C. reinforced or plain shall be taken separately in cu.m. and shall be described as including all molds, finished faces hoisting and setting in position.

Reinforcement, if any, shall be described and included in the item, or measured separate if specified.

• Expansion joints:

(a) Expansion joints in roofs, floors, walls, road, etc. shall be measured in running meter.

(b) The depth and width of joint, and materials used for filling shall be described.

• Jallies:

(a) Jallies or Jafferies, louvers shall be described and thickness specified and taken in sq.m.

(b) Reinforcement shall be described and included in the item.

• Concrete posts:

(a) Fencing posts, corner posts, struts, etc., shall be taken in cu.m. and reinforcement and formwork shall be included and described.

• Concrete piles:

(a) Concrete piles shall be described and taken in cu.m. and classified according to the section and length.

(b) Steel reinforcement shall be included with the item and fully described.

(c) Heads and shoes of steel or iron shall be enumerated i.e., taken in numbers and weight of each stated.

(d) Pitching and driving of piles shall be enumerated stating size and length.

If specified, the driving of piles may be taken and measured in running metre for the portion driven below ground level.

• Damp proof course:

(a) Damp proof course shall be fully described and taken in sq.m. stating the thickness.

(b) The item shall include formwork, finishing, levelling, curing, etc.

(c) The horizontal and vertical damp proof courses shall be measured separately.

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It may be plain cement or reinforced cement concrete:

(a) Plain Cement Concrete (P.C.C.):

• The item of foundation concrete is calculated in cubic metres, by multiplication of length, width and depth of concrete.
• The length and width of the foundation concrete shall be same as for excavation item, only the depth or thickness of concrete being different.
• The usual proportion of foundation plain cement concrete is 1:4:8 or 1:5:10 and its depth varies from 15 cm to 40 cm.

• Foundation concrete may also be a lime concrete (i.e.,  instead of cement, lime will be used while preparing concrete).
• Lime concrete in foundations is also to be measured in cubic metres.

(b) Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C.):

• The reinforced cement concrete may be required for slabs, beams, columns, footings and lintels, etc. and is measured in cubic metres.
• R.C.C. slabs having depth less than 15 cm, R.C.C. partitions, pardi, jali, etc. are measured in square metres specifying the thickness in the description column.
• The item of reinforced cement concrete is usually split up into three parts:
  • Concrete to be measured in cubic metres.
  • Form work:
    • Unless otherwise specified, it is to be measured separately.
    • The surface of the form work in contact with the concrete is usually measured in square metres.
  • Reinforcement:
    • Unless otherwise specified, the item of reinforcement is to be measured separately.
    • If the details of reinforcement bars are not shown on the structural drawings, then the item is measured as percentage of concrete in which it is embedded.
    • For slabs, it is usually assumed as 0.8% approximately, for beams it is usually taken as 1% approximately and for columns, it is taken as 1.5% approximately.
    • When the details of reinforcing bars are shown on the drawings, then knowing the total lengths of bars and their diameters, the total volume of steel required can be calculated.
    • This volume, when multiplied by its weight density, gives the total weight of steel reinforcement required.
• In case of precast cement concrete, the item shall include moulds for its casting, reinforcement steel required and finishing, etc. according to the description specified for the item.
• Hoisting and erection of items in position shall usually be included in the item.
• Precast cement concrete items having small thickness, such as slabs up to 12 cm thickness, jali work, partition walls, etc, are measured in square metres.
• Precast concrete units of uniform cross-section having long length such as columns, fencing poles, posts, beams, etc, are measured in number or running metres, specifying its sectional area in the description of the item.
• Solid block work in precast concrete may be measured in cubic metres.
• Stair-case in R.C.C. is usually measured in terms of number of steps specifying its dimensions in the description column.
• Measurement of Concrete in Columns, Beams and Slabs:

i) Columns: The length or height of the column shall be measured from top of the footing on which column rests to the underside of the first slab for the ground floor and the top of the floor slab to the underside of the floor slab immediately above it. (see Fig. 3.6)

ii) Beams: The length of the beam shall be measured clearly between the two columns and shall be inclusive of haunches between columns and beams, if any. (See Fig. 3.7) 

The depth of the ordinary beam shall be measured from the bottom of the beam to the bottom of the slab above it. In case of inverted beams, however, it is measured from top of the slab to the bottom of the beam.

iii) Slab: The depth of the slab shall be measured from the top of the slab to the top of the rectangular beam lying below it. (See Fig 3.7) In case of slab and T or L-beam, the common portion shall be measured in the T-beam.

iv) In case of concrete chajjas combined with lintels or beam, the common portion shall be included into lintel only. (See Fig. 3.9)

The common portion at the junction of two similar members is usually included with only one item.

Example: In case of junction of column and beam, the common portion of the work is included in the column (See Fig. 3.6), and in case of slab and rectangular beam, the common portion is included in the slab (See Fig. 3.7), whereas in case of slab and T-beams (or L-beams), the common portion is to be included in the T (or L) beam. (See Fig. 3.8) and in case of lintel and chajja the portion common to it is measured in the lintel. (See Fig. 3.9

The item of reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C.) work is usually divided into two parts i.e., the concrete work required inclusive of centering, shuttering, form work, etc. completely (excluding reinforcement) is measured as one item and the steel reinforcement required is considered as another separate item, no deductions being made for the space occupied by the steel from the volume of concrete. Binding wire required is to be included in this  item and separate measurements are required for it.

The quantity of concrete work in R.C.C. is calculated in cubic metres knowing the length, width, and depth of the concrete. The quantity  of reinforcement steel to be laid in position is also worked out from the details shown on the drawings, making due allowance for overlaps, hooks and cranks, etc. In the absence of such detailed reinforcement drawings, the quantity of reinforcement steel may be worked out approximately on the percentage of the volume of concrete as specified below:

For foundation footings = About 0.5% of volume of concrete

For column = About 1.2 to 2.5% of volume of concrete

For beam = About 1 to 1.5% of volume of concrete

For slab and lintels = About 0.8 to 0.9% of volume of concrete

A thin rich cement plaster may be applied to the exposed R.C.C. surfaces to give uniform smooth finished surface, without making separate item. No deduction shall be made for the volume of the reinforcing bar from the volume of concrete.

• Determination of the Length of Reinforcement Bars:

Consider a bar with standard hook as shown in Fig. 3.10. The length of the hook = d + 4d+ 4d = 9d, where d represents the diameter of the bar.

Length of the straight bar of length L, with hook at both ends = L + 9d +9d = L + 18d

For a 45 degree bent up bar (Fig. 3.11),

For 60 degree bent,

• Schedule of (Reinforcement) Bars:

It is usual practice to prepare a schedule of reinforcement bars which will be useful for bar bender and supervisors, etc. It contains of a list of reinforcement bars specified in a tabular form, indicating its diameter, shape of bending with neat sketches, length of each angle of bent, its total weight, etc. Such a schedule of bars is prepared separately for each type of R.C.C. work such as slabs, beams, columns, etc. From the schedule of bars, it is possible to determine the total requirement of reinforcement for that item of work with its length, diameter, etc. and accordingly the job of bending of bars, etc. as per the drawings can be carried out before it is placed in the position before casting of the member.

Some of the usual types of reinforcement bars with the length of hooks and the total length of the bar required are as mentioned below:

 

Earthwork

• Earthwork shall be taken in cu.m. and the length, breadth and height or depth shall be measured to get the cubic content.
• Earthwork of different nature as in excavation in foundation, in trenches, etc., and in filling in plinth, in banking, etc., shall be measured under separate items.
• Earthwork in different kinds of soil as ordinary soil, hard soil, ordinary rock, hard rock, etc., shall be classified separately and measured under separate item.
• Excavation shall include throwing of the excavated earth at least one meter clear of the edge of excavation.
• Dressing or trimming and leveling or grading, ramming and consolidation thickness of each layer, etc., shall be described and included in the item of earthwork.
• Measurement of excavation or trenches or borrow pits shall be taken for average dimensions.
• When the ground is fairly uniform ‘Deadman” or “Tell-Tales” which shall be left at suitable intervals to determine the average depth of excavation.
• For uneven or sloping ground, diagonal ‘Tell-Tales’ shall be left.
• No deduction shall be made for Deadman, Tell-Tales which shall be removed after the measurements have been taken and checking has been completed.
• When the ground is very uneven, levels shall be taken before the start and after the completion of the earthwork by leveling instrument and the average depth of excavation or filling shall be determined from these levels.
• Whenever it is not possible or convenient to make measurements from cutting, the filling or banking shall be measured and deduction for shrinkage or voids (settlement allowances) shall be made from actual measured cubic contents depending on the nature of the soil and methods of consolidation.
• Generally, 10% deduction shall be made in caser of ordinary consolidated fills and in case of consolidation done by heavy machinery, a deduction of 5% shall be made.
• Lead and lift:

(a) The measurement shall be taken separately for every 30 m lead or distance and every 1.5 m lift or height or depth.

(b) The lead shall be measured from the centre of the area of excavation to the centre of the area of spoil heap.

(c) Similarly, lift shall be measured from the centre of excavation to the centre of spoil heap.

(d) The normal rate is for each unit of 30 m lead and 1.5 m lift. For grater lead or lift, the rate shall be different for every unit of 30 m lead, and for every unit of 1.5 m lift.

• Foundation trench:

(a) Unless otherwise specified, the foundation trench shall be measured in cu.m. for rectangular section, bottom width being width of concrete and the depth shall be measured as vertical depth even though the contractor might have excavated with sloping sides for convenience.

• Return, fill and ram:

(a) Returning, filling and ramming excavated earth shall be taken in cu.m. under a separate item and shall include spreading in layers of 20 cm in depth, watering, ramming and leveling.

• Puddling:

(a) Clay puddle work shall be taken in cu.m. and shall be described including supply of clay, its preparation, placing in layer of 15 cm, ramming, etc.

• Surface dressing:

(a) Trimming and dressing of natural ground to remove vegetation and small irregularities not exceeding 15 cm deep shall be taken in sq.m. under a separate item ‘Surface Dressing’.

(b) Cutting down of trees exceeding 30 cm girth shall be accounted separately and enumerated i.e., taken in numbers, stating the girth at 1 m above ground and paid separately.

• Surface excavation:

(a) Excavation exceeding 1.5 m in width as well as 10 sq.m. in plan but not exceeding 30 cm in depth shall be described as Surface excavation and measured in sq.m.

• Pumping:

(a) When spring water requires pumping, the work of pumping and dewatering shall be taken under separate item.

• Timbering:

(a) Timbering or ‘Planking and Strutting’ for protecting the sides of trench or loose earth, shall be measured in sq.m. of face supported, and shall be classified under separate items as: –

(b) Depth not exceeding 1.5 m,

(c) Depth exceeding 1.5 m but not exceeding 5 m,

(d) Depth exceeding 5 m.

(e) Timbering shall include all necessary timber work including walls, struts, poling boards, etc.

(f) Both sides of trench shall be taken as one side area and shall be equal to length x depth of timbering.

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As per I.S. 1200 of 1974, the measurement of the item of earth work shall be carried out as follows:

• Earth work in excavation and earthwork in filling or embankment are to be considered separately under different items and shall be measured in cubic metres by multiplying the length of excavation (or filling) by its width (or breadth) and the depth (or height). i.e., Quantity of earth work = L x B x D (or H) cubic metres subject to the dimensions of L,B and D (or H) as shown on the drawings.
• It is necessary to record the measurement of excavation item separately for every additional 1.5 m  lift and also for additional different leads (i.e., disposing off the excavated material beyond the boundary of the proposed work) as the rates of excavation will vary according to different lifts and leads.
• As the same excavated material is usually used for ‘back filling’ (i.e., return fill and ramming the portion of the gap between the original portion of the excavated ground and the completed masonry in foundations) no separate provision is necessary for this work.
• In case of sand filling in plinth, this item is to be taken separately and measured in cubic metres.
• The Excavation in different soil strata is usually classified as follows:

1. Ordinary loose soft soil
2. Hard soil
3. Soft murum
4. Hard murum
5. Soft rock
6. Hard rock requiring blasting
7. Hard rock requiring chiseling

• Usually shoring, strutting, preparing the foundation bed and dewatering, if necessary, is also included under this item.

Sand

• Sand shall be clean, hard, durable, angular, sharp and gritty to touch and free from mica, salts, alkalies, organic and vegetable matters.
• It should not contain more than 5% of clay or silt.
• Sand should be perfectly dry before being measured.
• If damp sand is used, compensation shall be made for bulking by adding additional sand up to the extent of bulking.
• Sand shall be natural river sand or pit sand of approved quality.
• For concrete coarse sand of maximum size of 5 mm shall be used.
• All sand shall pass through a sieve of 5 mm sq. mesh and 60% retained on I.S. sieve 60.
• Fineness modulus of coarse sand shall not be less than 2.5
• For brickwork or masonry and for plastering or pointing, fine and medium sand shall be used.
• This shall be screened through a sieve having 9 meshes per sq.cm. and the bigger particle excluded and rejected.
• Fine sand should not pass more than 20% through a sieve of 400 meshes per sq.cm. and not more than 20% through a sieve 1600 meshes per sq.cm.
• Fineness modulus of fine sand should not be less than 1.0

Cement Mortar

• The proportion of cement and sand may be as specified, may be 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:5 and 1:6.
• Cement shall be Portland cement of standard specifications.
• Sand shall be clean and free from dust, dirt and organic matters and shall not contain more than 4% silt.
• Fine local sand may be used which shall pass through screen having 9 meshes per sq.cm.
• Fineness modules of sand shall not be less than 1.0
• The mixing shall be done first dry on a pucca platform and then with water.
• Cement and sand should be measured with boxes to have the required proportion.
• Sand should be spread out on the platform and the required quantity of cement should be spread on top of sand and the whole should be mixed dry.
• The dry mixture shall then be formed roughly into a hollow cone shape and water added slowly and gradually by a can, and the whole should be mixed thoroughly to have a uniform color and consistency.
• Quantity of water should not exceed 30 litres per bag of cement.
• One bag of cement (50 kg) shall be taken at 1/30 cu.m. and sand shall be measured with box to have the required proportion.
• Mixing may also be done by means of mechanical mixer.
• In this process, first about 5 to 10 percent of water shall be put in the mixer and then sand and cement in the required proportions shall be added.
• Mixing will be continued until the mix becomes uniform in color and consistency.
• Only such quantity of mortar as can be used before setting begin, shall be mixed with water at one time.
• No mortar which has begun to set shall be used even after remixing, such mortar shall be immediately removed from the site of work.

Random rubble stone masonry

• The stones shall be hard, sound and durable of approved quarry.
• Stone shall be hammer dressed to secure closed joint so that the stones when laid will come into close proximity.
• Stones shall be fairly, equal in size and every stone shall be fitted to the adjacent stones.
• No stone shall be less than 15 cm in size.
• Stones with round surface shall not be used.
• Face stone shall be comparatively larger and uniform in size and color to give a good appearance and breadth of face stones shall be greater than the height.
• Face stone should tail into wall to a sufficient depth to bond well.
• Stones shall be laid with broader face downward to give a good bedding.
• Face joints shall be broken and face of wall shall be truly in plumb.
• Corner stones of quoins should be a good stone and dressed to correct angle and laid as headers and stretchers.
• Mortar shall be as specified, may be of cement mortar 1:3 to 1:6 or lime mortar 1:2 to 1:3.
• Materials or mortar shall be of standard specifications.
• Mortar shall be first dry mixed to have the required proportion and then mixed with water by adding water slowly and gradually and mixed thoroughly to get a uniform mortar of workable consistency.
• Fresh mixed mortar shall be used.
• Joints shall not be thicker than 2 cm, face joints shall be thinner.
• Interstices, if any, may be filled with pieces or spalls of stones embedded in mortar.
• Not more than 60 cm height of masonry shall be constructed at a time.
• Through bond stones of one piece shall be provided, one every 0.5 sq.m. of face and should extend to the full thickness of wall.
• For wall thicker than 75 cm, bond stones may be of two pieces placed side by side overlapping at least 15 cm.
• Breadth of bond stone shall not be less than 1 ½ times the height.
• All stones shall be thoroughly wetted before laying.
• At the end of day’s work, the masonry shall be flooded with 2.5 cm water at the upper surface.
• The masonry shall be kept moist for a period of at least 10 days and shall be protected from sun, rain, frost and other weather effect.

Coursed rubble stone masonry

• The stone shall be hard, sound and durable of approved quarry.
• Stones shall be hammer dressed on bed and top and also on sides so that the stones will come to close proximity and each stone can be laid in courses.
• Stone with round surface shall not be used.
• Each course shall consist of stone not less than 15 cm thick.
• Stone should be laid with broader face downward and vertical joints shall be broken.
• All courses shall be truly horizontal and all joints shall be full of mortar.
• Outer faces of stones shall be squared by hammer dressing to give a good appearance, and faces of wall shall be truly in plumb.
• The face joints shall be at least right angles to the face for at least to a depth of 5 cm.
• The face stones shall be laid alternate headers and stretchers and should tail into wall to sufficient depth to bond well.
• Corner stones or quoins should be of good stone and dressed to correct angles and laid header and stretcher alternatively.
• Mortar shall be as specified, may be cement mortar 1:3 to 1:6 or lime mortar 1:2 to 1:3.
• Materials of mortar shall be of standard specifications.
• Mortar shall be first dry mixed to have the required proportion and then mixed with water by adding water slowly and gradually and mixed thoroughly to get a uniform mortar of workable consistency.
• Fresh mixed mortar shall be used.
• Joints shall not be thicker than 12 mm, face joints shall be thinner.
• Interstices, if any, may be filled with pieces of spalls of stones embedded in mortar.
• Not more than 60 cm height of masonry shall be constructed at a time.
• Through bound stone of one piece shall be provided one for every 0.5 sq.m. of face and should extend to the full thickness of walls.
• For walls thicker than 75 cm, the bond stones may be of two pieces placed with side overlapping of at least 15 cm.
• Breadth of bond stones shall not be less than 1 ½ times the height.
• All stones shall be thoroughly wetted before laying.
• At the end of day’s work, the masonry shall be flooded with 2.5 cm water at the upper surface.
• The masonry shall be kept moist for a period of at least 10 days and shall be protected from sun, rain, frost and other weather effect.

Ashlar Masonry

• The stone shall be hard, tough, sound and durable of approved quarry.
• Stones shall be chisel dressed on all beds (all sides) to have perfectly square or rectangular faces so that they may be laid in perfectly horizontal and vertical joints.
• Minimum height of stone shall be 20 cm and breadth not less than 1 ½ times height.
• Stone shall be laid alternate headers and stretchers with break joint and proper bond shall be maintained not to have any vertical joint in two consecutive layers.
• Each course shall be truly horizontal and each stone shall be laid on its natural bed.
• The wall shall be truly in plumb.
• No joint shall be thicker than 3.5 mm.
• If pointing is not provided as a separate item, the joints shall be struck and finished at the time of laying.
• Not more than 60 cm height of masonry shall be constructed at a time.
• Mortar shall be as specified, rich fine mortar shall be used, may be of cement mortar 1:2 to 1:4 or lime mortar 1:1 to 1:2, materials of mortar shall be of standard specifications.
• Mortar shall be first dry mixed to have the required proportion and then mixed with water by adding water slowly and gradually and mixed thoroughly to get a uniform mortar of workable consistency.
• Fresh mixed mortar shall be used.
• All stones shall be thoroughly wetted before use.
• At the end of day’s work, the masonry shall be flooded with 2.5 cm water at the upper surfaces.
• The masonry shall be kept moist for a period of at least 10 days and shall be protected from sun, rain, frost and other weather effect.
• Usually, exposed faces of stones and edges of face stones shall be fine chisel dressed and inner surface of stones are rough chiseled. In such case the inner joint may be 6 mm thick.

Centering and Shuttering

• Shuttering should be either of hard wooden planking 30 mm thick (or steel plates stiffened by angle iron).
• The shuttering shall be supported on battens, beams, props and wedges and properly cross braced together so as to make the framework sufficiently rigid, strong and stable to support the wet concrete and works and should not yield on working and laying concrete.
• Beams for centering shall be carried and supported on the walls with double wedges underneath and supported at intervals with props.
• Props shall consist of ballies or brick pillars in mud mortar.
• Ballie props shall rest on double wedges placed over wooden sole planks of 40 mm thickness so as to facilitate tightening and easing of the centering and shuttering.
• In case of brick pillars, the wooden sole plank shall be provided at the top of pillars and double wedges inserted in between the sole plank and the beam of the centering and shuttering.
• The shuttering shall be kept clear of wall bearing and made to rest on cross-beam or battens.
• The shuttering shall have smooth and even surface and its joint shall be close tight and shall not permit leakage of cement mortar, if required the joints shall be lined with craft paper or other approved material.
• Inner face of shuttering shall be applied with a wash of molded oil or raw linseed oil or soap solution or other approved material to prevent adherence of the concrete.
• For slabs and beams, small camber shall be given in the shuttering. Camber of 1cm per 2.50m with a maximum of 4cm should be provided.
• Centering and shuttering shall not be removed before 14 days in general (4 days for R.C.C. columns, 10 days for roof slab and 14 days for beams).
• Centering and shuttering shall be removed slowly and carefully without any shock or vibration by slackening and removing the wedges gradually in such a manner that no part of the concrete is disturbed or damaged.
• Centering and shuttering shall be measured in sq.m., and the surface area in contact with concrete shall be measured.

Glazing

• Glass shall be of the beast quality and free from bubbles, scratches, and other imperfections.
• The thickness of glass shall be 3 mm or as specified.
• The glass panes shall be fixed in 15 mm rebate of the wooden frame leaving 1.5 mm clear gap all-round for allowing for expansions.
• The rebate shall be painted before glasses are fixed.
• Putty shall be of best quality made of finely powered whiting and linseed oil, kneeled into a stiff paste.
• First a thin layer of putty (back putty) shall be applied on the rebate, then glass shall be fixed in position by a few small nails and then putty (front putty) shall be applied and pressed in position and finished off neatly and in such a manner that no putty projects beyond the rebate.
• The putty shall then be painted with a coat of paint.
• In case of large glass panes or plate glasses, these should be fixed in the rebate by molded wooden fillets all-round with brass or nickel screws, inserting a strip of felt or rubber in the rebate under the glass to act as a cushion.
• The wooden fillet shall be finished with painting.

Doors and Windows

• Timber shall be of the kind as specified, may be teak, shisham, sal, deodar, etc.
• The timber shall be of the best quality, well-seasoned and free from sap, knots, warps, cracks and other defects.
• All wood work shall be planed, and neatly, truly finished to the exact dimensions.
• All joints shall be neat and strong, truly and accurately fitted, and glued before being fitted together.
• Chaukhats:

(a) The chaukhats shall be properly framed and joined by mortise and tenon joint with hard wood pins, and the joints shall be coated with white lead before being fitted together.

(b) The chaukhats shall be of section as per drawing, may be 7.5 cm x 10 cm, 10 cm x 10 cm, 8 cm x 12 cm or similar section.

(c) Concealed faces of chaukhats shall be painted with two coats of coal tar or solignum and other faces shall be painted with a prime coat before fixing in position.

• Shutters or leaves (Joinery):

(a) The shutters should be paneled, glazed, part paneled and part glazed, battened, or venation as specified.

(b) The thickness of shutters shall be 3 cm to 5 cm as specified.

(c) The styles rails and panels shall be planed and neatly and truly finished to the exact dimensions.

(d) The styles and rails shall be framed properly and accurately with mortise and tenon joint and fixed with wooden pins.

(e) Panels shall be of one piece without any joint and shall be fixed with 12 mm insertion into the rails and styles and rails provided with moldings as per design.

(f) The thickness of panels shall be 12 mm to 25 mm as specified.

(g) All rails over 15 cm in width shall have double tenon.

(h) No tenon shall exceed one-fourth of thickness of the plank.

(i) For glazed windows, sash bars shall not be less than 40 mm x 40 mm and glasses shall be fixed with nails and putty or with wooden beadings over felt as specified.

(j) All joints shall be glued before being fitted.

• Fittings:

(a) All doors shall be provided with handles on both sides and all windows with handles on the inner side.

(b) One of the door of each room shall be provided with sliding bolts, on the outer side of locking.

(c) Necessary hinges, tower bolts, hook bolt stops for keeping the leaves open, and also wooden blocks to prevent leaves striking the jambs of wall, etc., shall be provided.

(d) The fitting may be of iron, brass of oxidized as specified of approved quality.

(e) Screws shall be suitable length and correct diameter and shall be fixed with screw driver and not by hammering.

• Painting:

(a) The surface of shutters and chaukhats shall be painted with two coats of approved paint over a coat of priming.

(b) Faces of chaukhats in contact with masonry shall be painted with two coats of solignum or coal tar or other preservative before fixing.

(c) A prime coat of painting with primer paint shall be applied on the remaining surfaces before fixing in position.

• Measurements:

(a) The rate shall be for the complete work including hanging and fixing in position.

(b) The chaukhats shall be measured in cu.m. under wood work for the finished work, and the length of tenon, horns, etc., shall be added to right lengths.

(c) The measurement of shutters shall be taken in sq.m. for the finished work in closed position, overlaps of two shutters shall not be measured.

(d) The painting shall be measured separately under a separate item in sq.m.

(e) The cost of fitting may be excluded if specified, and the fitting supplied by the department or owner, but the fixing of fitting and hanging in position shall be included in the rate.

Woodwork (Carpenter’s work)

• All woodwork of which the scantling exceeds 20 sq.m. section and which is not specially molded or carved comes under carpenter’s work.
• This include all timber work in chaukhats of doors and windows, in roof work as beams, struts, ties, rafters, purlins, in timber bridge, etc.
• Timber may be specified, may be teak, shisham, sal, deodar, etc.
• The timber shall be of best quality, well-seasoned and free from saps, knots, warps, crack and other defects.
• The scantling shall be sawn in the direction of the grains.
• All wood work shall be planed and neatly and truly finished to the exact dimensions.
• All joints shall be neat and strong, truly and accurately fitted, and coated with white lead before being fitted together.
• All portions of timber built into or in contact of masonry or concrete shall be given two coats of solignum or tar or other approved preservatives.
• Exposed surfaces of timber shall be painted with two coats of approved paint over a coat of priming.
• All beams shall be bedded on plates with a minimum bearing of 25 cm and 6 mm clear air spaces shall be left on each side.
• No wood work shall be fixed within 60 cm of sire place or flue.
• Measurement of wood work shall be taken in cu.m. for the finished work fixed in position including sawing, planning, joining, nails, screws, etc.
• Painting of woodwork should be included under separate item.

French Spirit Polishing

• Polish:

(a) Pure shellac varying from pale orange to lemon yellow color, free from resin, dirt, etc., shall be dissolved in methylated spirit at the rate of 0.15 kg of shellac to 1 liter of spirit.

(b) Suitable pigment shall be added to get the required shade.

• Preparation of surface:

(a) The surface of the timber shall be cleaned and rubbed down smooth with sand paper.

(b) Knots if visible shall be covered with a preparation of lead and glue size laid on while hot.

(c) Holes and indentations on the surface shall be filled with putty and smoothed.

(d)The surface shall then be given a coat of wood filled made by mixing whiting (powdered chalk) in methylated spirit at the rate of 1.5 kg of whiting per liter of spirit.

(e) The surface shall then be rubbed down perfectly smooth with glass paper and wiped clean.

• Application:

(a) A pad of woolen cloth covered by fine cloth shall be used to apply the polish.

(b) The pad shall be moistened with the polish and rubbed hard on the wood, in series of overlapping circles applying the polish sparingly but uniformly over the entire surface to give a uniform surface and high gloss.

(c) Number of coat shall be as specified.

(d) The second coat shall be applied, after the first is dried, in the same way as for the first coat.

Varnishing

• Knots, holes, cracks, etc., shall be filled and covered with putty made of whiting and linseed oil.
• The wood work shall be rubbed down with sand paper sufficiently smooth to remove any grain marks and it shall be cleaned before-hand.
• Two coats of boiled linseed oil or two thin coats of glue as specified shall be applied and each such coat shall be allowed to dry up and rubbed down smooth with a sand paper.
• The varnish shall be applied with brushes using strong, firm strokes, of brushes and spread evenly.
• The brushes shall be of good quality and perfectly cleaned.
• In no case sand paper should be rubbed across the grain, which may cause the finest marks on the finished surface.
• Specified quality of copal varnish shall then be laid on the prepared surface in thin coats unless any other brand is specially mentioned.
• For new wood work, a second coat shall be applied after the first coat of varnish has thoroughly been dried up.
• Varnishing shall be done during the dry weather and should not be allowed to be undertaken in the rainy days.

Painting Steel and Iron Work

1. All rust scales, dirt, supplier’s delivery marks, oil, grease, etc., shall be removed by rubbing by sand paper before painting.
2. Special care shall be taken for cleaning of corners.
3. All structural steel work shall be painted with red lead before erection except the surfaces which will be in contact with concrete.
4. Where corrosive effect is likelihood from sea atmosphere, a coat of raw linseed oil shall be applied on the surface immediately after cleaning and before the 1^st coat of red lead is applied.
5. Two to three coats of approved ready-manufactured paint or ready-mixed paint shall be applied at right angles to each other after erection of the structural member.
6. Each coat should be allowed to dry up perfectly before the succeeding coat is laid over it.
7. Painting shall be carried out during dry weather.

Painting

• The brand of the paint shall be specified and ready-made paint of the required color should be used.
• If thinning is required, pure turpentine may be added to the required extent.
• The surface shall be made perfectly smooth by rubbing with sand paper of different grades, first with coarse one and successively with fine sand papers.
• All holes and open joints shall be filled with strong putty or with a mixture of glue and plaster of Paris and smoothed by rubbing with sand paper.
• In steel work, all rusts and scales shall be perfectly removed by scraping and brushing.
• The number of coats shall be specified, in new work one priming coat and then two coats of paints shall be applied.
• The paint shall be applied with brushes evenly and smoothly by crossing and laying off in the direction of grains of wood-work and no brush marks should be visible.
• Each coat shall be perfectly dry before the next is applied.
• Before the next coat is applied, the surface shall be rubbed with No. 0 sand paper, to give a smooth and glazed surface.
• The paint should be stirred in the container immediately before use.
• Brushes should be cleaned and washed with turpentine at the end of the day’s work and kept dry.
• If stiff paint is used, it should be first prepared by mixing with double boiled linseed oil and turpentine to a thin cream.
• If old paint is to be removed, it may be removed by washing with soda water, or with caustic soda or blowing with blow lamp and scraping or by using any patent paint remover.
• After removing the paint, the surface should be dried and rubbed with sand paper and smoothed before paint is applied.
• In old painted surface, if paint is not required to be removed but requires repainting, the surface should be washed with soap water and then paint shall be applied.
• In steel work exposed to weather, the painting should be done either with red oxide paint or with aluminum paint.

Distempering

• The distemper shall be of best quality and the color shall be as specified.
• The distemper shall be mixed and prepared and water added, as laid down in the instructions of the manufacturer.
• First a paste is made by adding little hot water to the distemper powder and stirred thoroughly, and the paste is allowed to stand for a few minutes.
• The paste is then thinned with water to have a thin cream to the consistency of oil paint and stirred thoroughly all the time while applying.
• If the surface is rough, it should be smoothened with sand paper.
• The surface must be perfectly dry before distempering is commenced.
• In new cement plaster the surface shall be washed over with a solution of zinc sulphate, 1kg zinc sulphate in 10 litres of water and then allowed to dry.
• In old surface, the surface shall be repaired with plaster of Paris where required and then whole surface should be sand papered and washed and allowed to dry.
• The number of coats shall be two or as specified.
• The distemper shall be kept well stirred in containers and shall be applied with broad brushes first horizontally and immediately crossed vertically.
• Brushing shall not be continued too long to avoid brush marks.
• The second coat shall be applied after the first coat is dried up.
• After each day’s work, the brushes shall be washed and kept dry.
• Distempering should be done during dry weather but not during too hot weather, not wet weather.
• Oil distemper:

(a) Oil distemper is similar to ordinary dry distemper in powder form.

(b) In the oil distemper compound (dry powder), oil is mixed by the manufacturer while manufacturing.

(c) For application of oil distemper, it is mixed with the required quantity of water and then applied on the surface.

(d) The methods of preparation and application are similar as described above.

Color Washing

• Color wash shall be prepared with fresh slaked white lime mixed with water to make thin cream adding the colored pigment to the required quantity to give the required tint.
• Gum (glue) in the proportion of 100 grams of gum to 16 litres of wash shall be added.
• The color wash may be applied in one or two coats as specified.
• The method of application shall be same as for white washing.

White Washing

• Fresh white lime slaked at site of work should be mixed with sufficient water to make a thin cream.
• The approximate quantity of water required in making the cream is 5 litres of water to 1 kg of lime.
• It shall then be screened through a coarse cloth and gum (glue) in the proportion of 100 grams of gum to 16 litres of wash shall be added.
• The surface should be dry and thoroughly cleaned from dust and dirt.
• The wash shall be applied with ‘moonj’ or jute brush, vertically and horizontally alternatively and the wash kept stirred in the container while using.
• Two or three coats shall be applied as specified and each coat shall be perfectly dry before the succeeding coat is applied over it.
• After finishing, the surface shall be of uniform color.
• The white wash should not splash on the floor and other surfaces.
• In old surface, the surface should be cleaned and repaired with cement mortar where necessary and allowed to dry before white wash is applied.
• For final coat, blue pigment powder should be mixed to the required quantity with the lime water to give a bright white surface.

Mosaic or terrazzo floor

• The mosaic floor consists of two layers, the bottom layer 2 – 2.5 cm cement concrete 1:2:4 (or 1:2 ½:3 ½, as specified), and the upper layer of 6 mm thick consisting of a mix of marble chips and cement in the proportion of 1:1 ½, one part of cement and 1 ½ parts of marble chips.
• The top layer is laid on the following day.
• It shall be laid more than the specified thickness in order to get the specified thickness after cutting and finishing.
• Cement shall be of standard specifications.
• The sand shall be course, well graded, clean and free from dust dirt.
• The stone grit shall be hard and tough (granite stone) of 12 mm gauge, well graded, clean and free from dust and dirt.
• The marble chips shall be of 3 mm gauge having maximum size of 3 mm and minimum size of 1.5 mm.
• Large size of marble chips limited to 6 mm may be used in floors of big rooms.
• Cement concrete shall be prepared by prepared by mixing the ingredients dry by measuring with boxes to have the required proportion.
• First cement and sand shall be mixed dry and this dry mix shall be mixed with stone chips dry and then mixed by adding water slowly and gradually and mixed thoroughly to have a uniform plastic mix.
• The base shall be made rough and watered, and given a cement wash, and then the concrete shall be laid in 2 cm thick layer in panels of 1 m x 2 m bounded by 3 mm thick glass or aluminum strips.
• After laying the concrete shall be compacted by heating and tamping and levelled with wooden floats.
• The marble chips and cement shall be mixed by measuring with boxes to have the required proportion, first dry mixed, and then thoroughly mixed by adding water gradually to have a uniform plastic mix.
• Within two hours of laying of the bottom layer of cement concrete, the upper layer of marble chips and cement shall be laid, and the surface tamped lightly and finished perfectly level with straight edge float and trowel.
• After about 2 hours of laying, the surface shall be covered with wet bags and kept wet and left undisturbed for two days.
• The surface shall then be cut or ground by rubbing with sand stone blocks and all the cement on the surface is removed.
• A neat cement wash shall then be given in the surface and left undisturbed for six days and then the surface shall be ground (or rubbed) with carborundum stones of different grades starting with coarse one and successively with finer ones, and the rubbing continued until the entire surface shows a uniform granular appearance.
• The surface shall be kept wet during all these days.
• After final rubbing, the surface shall be thoroughly cleaned by washing with soft soap water and then with clean water.
• Finally, when the surface is absolutely dry, oxalic acid powder shall be well rubbed on the surface with pieces of felt and a few drops of water and this operation shall be repeated until the surface becomes perfectly smooth and glossy.
• The surface may also be rubbed with wax to give a glazing surface.
• White cement or colored cement shall be used to have the required color if specified.
• Proportion of mosaic layer may be 1:2 or 1:1 ½ or 1:1; cement:marble chips, as specified.
• The mosaic layer may also be applied on the following day instead of the same day of concreting, if specified.
• In that case surface should be left rough and a neat cement wash shall be applied just before mosaic layer is laid.
• For ground floor, a base of lime concrete or weak c. c. and for first and upper floor roughening and cement washing shall be provided as described under item 8.
• The grinding and polishing may also be done by grinding machines in three operations, first grinding with machine fitted with coarse grade stone, second grinding with medium grade stone, and final grinding with fine grade stone.

5cm Cement Concrete Floor

• The cement concrete shall be of proportion 1:2:4 or 1: 2 ½:3 ½ as specified.
• Cement shall be fresh Portland cement of standard specifications.
• The course aggregate shall be hard and tough (granite stone) of 20 mm gauge, well graded and free from dust, dirt, etc.
• The sand shall be coarse of 5 mm maximum size and down, well graded, clean and free from dust, dirt and organic matters.
• The floor shall be leveled and divided into panels of size not exceeding 1 meter in its smaller dimensions and 2 meter in its large dimensions.
• Glass or aluminum strips 3 mm thick and depth equal to the thickness of floor shall be fixed on the base with cement mortar.
• Required camber or slope shall be given in the floor for draining wash water.
• Mixing of concrete shall be done either by hand or by machine mixer.
• In case of hand mixing, first cement and sand is mixed dry thoroughly and the dry mix of cement and sand is mixed with ballast dry till stone ballast are well coated with dry mix of cement and sand and then nixed by adding water slowly and gradually to the required quantity and mixed thoroughly to have a uniform plastic mix.
• The quantity of water shall not exceed 30 litres per bag of cement.
• Concrete for one panel only shall be mixed in one lot.
• Alternate panels shall be laid on alternate days.
• The floor shall be laid in two layers.
• The lower layer being 22 mm thick and upper layer 3 mm thick.
• The base shall be made roughly and cleaned and soaked with water thoroughly and then given a cement wash just before laying.
• Concrete shall be placed gently and evenly and compacted by beating with wooden thapies and then the surface shall be tamped with wooden tampers.
• The surface shall then be smoothed with wooden floats and any unevenness shall be removed by adding 1:2 cement sand mortar.
• Finally, the surface shall be finished with wooden or steel floats by applying a thick slurry of mortar.
• The whole operation of laying shall be completed within 30 minutes.
• After laying, the surface shall be left undisturbed for 2 hours and then covered with wet bags and after 24 hours cured by flooding with water and kept flooded for at least 7 days.
• The surface of floor may be polished if specified.
• It is important that the same brand of cement is used for the whole floor of one room and the proportion is maintained strictly to have a uniform color.
• Junctions of floor with wall plaster, dado or skirting shall be rounded off neatly.
• Colored floor:

(a) For colored finish, the surface shall be finished with colored cement or with a mixture of ordinary Portland cement and colored pigment of the desired color in the proportion of 3 of cement and one of color (or 4:1 or 5:1).

(b) For colored floor, the thickness of the two layers shall be 19 mm and 6 mm.

(c) For polished floor the thickness of surface cement finishing should be 2.5 mm to allow for grinding and polishing.

• Base:

(a) In ground floor, the c. c. floor is to be laid on a 7.5 cm base of lime concrete or weak cement concrete as per standard specifications.

(b) If the base consists of cement concrete, it shall be allowed to set for about 7 days.

(c) In case the base is of weak cement concrete, the flooring shall commence within 48 hours of laying the base.

(d) In first floor or upper floor if c. c. floor is to be laid on R.C.C. slab, the surface of R.C.C. slab shall be made rough with brushes while concrete is green.

(e) Before laying the c. c. floor, the surface shall be cleaned, wetted and a neat cement wash shall be applied to get a good bond.

(f) A base of lime concrete may also be provided over the R.C.C. slab if specified.

(g) The base shall be provided with the slope required for the flooring.

(h) The thickness of c. c. bed for office building, school building, and in upper floor should be 4 cm.

Pointing (Cement Mortar or Lime Mortar)

• The joints of the brickwork shall be raked out to a depth of 20 mm and the surface of the wall washed and cleaned and kept wet for two days before pointing.
• The materials of mortar, cement and sand, or lime and surkhi or sand, or kankar lime, as specified, shall be of standard specifications.
• The materials of mortar shall be first dry mixed by measuring with boxes to have the required proportions as specified (1:2 or 1:3 for cement sand mortar, 1:1 for lime surkhi mortar, or kankar lime mortar), and then mixed by adding water slowly and gradually and thoroughly mixed.
• Mortar then shall be applied in the joints slightly in excess and pressed by a proper tool of the required shape.
• Extra mortar if any is removed and surface finished.
• Mortar shall not be spread over the face of bricks, and the edges of bricks shall be clearly defined to give a neat appearance.
• After pointing the surface shall be kept wet for seven days.
• Flush Pointing:

(a) The mortar shall be pressed into the raked, cleaned and wet joints and shall be finished off flush and level with edges of brick to give a smooth appearance.

(b) The edges shall be neatly trimmed with a trowel and straight edge.

• Ruled Pointing:

(a) The mortar shall be pressed into the raked, cleaned and wet joints and a groove of shape and size of 5 to 6 mm deep shall be formed running a forming tool of steel along the centre line of the joint.

(b) The vertical joints also shall be finished in a similar way at right angles to the horizontal lines.

(c) The finished work shall give a neat and clean appearance with straight edges.

• Weather or Struck Pointing:

(a) The mortar shall be applied on the raked, cleaned and wet joints, and horizontal joints shall be pressed and finished with a pointing tool so that the joint is sloping from top to bottom.

(b) The vertical joint shall be finished as ruled pointing.

• Raised or Tucked Pointing:

(a) The mortar shall be applied in raked, cleaned and wet joints in excess to form raised bands.

(b) The mortar shall be pressed and run with proper tool to form bands of 6 mm raised and 10 mm width as directed.

Plastering Cement Mortar or Lime Mortar

• The joints of the brickwork shall be raked out to a depth of 18 mm and the surface of the wall shall be washed and kept wet for two days before plastering.
• The materials of mortar, cement and sand or lime and surkhi or sand, or kankar lime, as specified should be of standard specifications.
• The materials or mortar shall be first dry mixed, by measuring with boxes to have the required proportion (as specified), and then water added slowly and gradually and mixed thoroughly.
• The thickness of plaster shall be as specified usually 12 mm applied in two or three coats.
• To ensure uniform thickness of plaster, patches of 15 cm x 15 cm strips 1 m apart or 10 cm wide plaster shall be applied first at about 2 m apart to act as a guide.
• First mortar shall be dashed and pressed over the surface and then brought to a true smooth and uniform surface by means of float and trowel.
• External plastering shall be started from top and worked down towards floor.
• Internal plastering shall be started wherever the building frame is ready and centering of the roof slabs have been removed.
• Ceiling plastering shall be completed before starting of wall plaster.
• All corners and edges shall be rounded.
• The plastered surface shall be kept wet for 10 days.
• The surface should be protected from rain, sun, frost, etc.
• For ideal work, the plastering should be applied in three coats – the rendering or first coat of 10 mm, the floating or second coat of 10 mm to 6 mm and finishing coat of 5 to 6 mm, having a total minimum thickness of 20 mm.
• The first coat shall be applied on the prepared raked, cleaned and wetted surface by dashing the mortar and floated roughly with wooden float.
• It shall be kept damp for two days.
• When the first coat has sufficiently set, the surface shall be wetted and a second coat of plaster shall be applied and brought to true even surface and then lightly roughened with a wooden float to provide bond for the finishing coat.
• The second coat shall be kept damp for at least two days and then allowed to dry.
• The finishing coat shall be applied on the wetted surface of the second coat and finished smooth to true even surface by float and trowel.
• The work shall be tested frequently with a straight edge and plumb bob.
• At the end of the day, the plaster shall be left, cut clean to line.
• When the next day plastering is started, the edge of the old work shall be scrapped, cleaned and wetted with cement slurry.
• At the end of the day, the plastering shall be closed on the body of the wall and not nearer than 15cm to any corner.
• Curing shall be started as soon as the plaster has hardened sufficiently not to be damaged when watered.
• The plaster shall be kept wet for at least 10 days.
• Any defective plaster shall be cut in rectangular shape and replaced.
• If specified, the final surface shall be given special finishing textures, as Scraped textures, Canvas textures, Cork-float finish, Wavy combed finish, Concentric arc finish, etc., with the required tools by engaging an expert worker in the profession.
• Different proportions of mortar which may be used for plastering:

(a) Cement, sand mortar – 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6

(b) Cement, lime, sand mortar – 1:1:6; C:L:S

(c) Lime, surkhi or sand mortar – 1:1, 1:2; Kankar lime mortar, Kankar lime alone.

(d) For ceiling plastering 1:3 cement mortar with coarse sand is generally used.

(e) Cement, lime sand mortar is slow setting and has better workability than cement, sand mortar.

Brickwork I Class

• Bricks:

(a) All bricks shall be of first class of standard specifications made of good brick earth thoroughly burnt, and shall be of deep cherry red of copper color.

(b) Bricks shall be regular in shape and their edges should be sharp and square and shall emit clear ringing sound on being struck, and shall be free from cracks, chips, flaws and lumps of any kind.

(c) Bricks shall not absorb water more than one-sixth of their weight after one hour of soaking by immersing in water.

(d) Bricks shall have a minimum crushing strength of 105 kg per sq.cm

• Mortar:

(a) Mortar shall be specified and materials of mortar shall be of standard specifications.

(b) For cement mortar, cement shall be fresh Portland cement of standard specifications.

(c) Sand shall be sharp, clean and free from organic and foreign matters.

(d) For rich mortar, coarse or medium sand should be used and for weak mortar, local fine sand may be used.

(e) Proportion of cement sand mortar may be 1:3 or 1:6 as specified.

(f) Materials of mortar shall be measured to have the required proportion with measuring box and first mixed dry to have a uniform color in a clean masonry platform and then mixed by adding clear water slowly and gradually to have workable consistency and mixed thoroughly by turning at least three times.

(g) Fresh mixed mortar shall be used, old and stale mortar shall not be used, and mortar for one hour’s work only shall be mixed with water so that the mortar may be used before setting starts.

(h) Lime surkhi (or sand or cinder) mortar if specified shall be mixed in the specified proportion by grinding in mortar mill for at least three hours on the same day of use.

(i) Lime shall be fresh and slaked and screened at site of work.

(j) Fresh mixed mortar within 24 hours shall be used. Old and stale mortar shall not be used.

(k) For small work, hand mixing may be allowed in the same manner as for cement mortar described above.

(l) Proportion of lime surkhi (or sand or cinder) mortar may be 1:2 to 1:3 as specified.

• Soaking of bricks:

(a) Bricks shall be fully soaked in clean water by submerging in tank for a period of 12 hours immediately before use.

(b) Soaking shall be continued till air bubbling is ceased.

• Laying:

(a) Bricks shall be well bounded and laid in English bond unless otherwise specified.

(b) Every course shall be truly horizontal and wall shall be truly in plumb.

(c) Vertical joints of consecutive course shall not come directly over one another, vertical joints in alternate course shall come directly over one another.

(d) No damaged or broken bricks shall be used.

(e) Closers shall be of clean cut bricks and shall be placed near the ends of the walls but not at the other edge.

(f) Selected best shaped bricks shall be used for face work.

(g) Mortar joint shall not exceed 6 mm in thickness and joints shall be fully filled with mortar.

(h) Bricks shall be laid with frogs upward except in the top course where frogs shall be placed downward.

(i) Brickwork shall be carried out not more than 1 m height at a time.

(j) When one part of the wall is to be delayed, stepping shall be left at an angle of 45º.

(k) Corbelling or projections which were made should not be more than ¼ brick projection in one course.

(l) All joints should be raked and faces of wall cleaned at the end of each day’s work.

• Curing:

(a) The brickwork shall be kept wet for a period of at least 10 days after laying.

(b) At the end of each day’s work the tops of walls shall be flooded with water by making small weak mortar edging to contain at least 2.5 cm deep water.

• Protection:

(a) The brickwork shall be protected from the effect of sun, rain, frost, etc., during the construction and up till such time it is green and likely to be damaged.

• Scaffolding:

(a) Necessary and suitable scaffolding shall be provided to facilitate the construction of brick wall.

(b) Scaffolding shall be sound and strong and supports and members sufficiently strong so as to withstand all loads likely to come upon them.

• Measurements:

(a) Brickwork shall be measured in cu.m.

(b) Different kinds of brickwork with different mortar shall be taken under separate items.

(c) The thickness of wall shall be taken as multiple of half bricks as half brick 10 cm, 1 brick 20 cm, 1 ½ brick 30 cm and so on.

(d) The rate shall be for the complete work including scaffolding and all tools and plants.

• Brickwork in arch:

(a)In addition to the above, the type of arch – roughed or axed or gauged arch as the case may be, and the centering of the arch should be specified.

Damp Proof Course 2.5 cm c.c. 1:1 ½:3

• Materials:

(a) Damp proof course shall consist of cement, coarse sand and stone aggregate of 1:1 ½:3 proportion with 2% of impermo or cem-seal, or Acco proof by weight of cement or other standard water proofing compound (1 kg per bag of cement).

(b) The damp proof course shall be applied at the plinth level in a horizontal layer of 2.5 cm thickness.

(c) The cement shall be fresh Portland cement of standard specifications.

(d) The sand shall be clean, coarse of 5 mm size and down, and the stone aggregate shall be hard and tough of 20 mm size well graded and free from dust and dirt.

• Mixing:

(a) Mixing shall be done in a masonry platform or in a sheet iron tray in the proportion of 1:1 ½:3 by measuring with measuring boxes.

(b) The cement is first mixed thoroughly with the water proofing compound to the required quantity, and then mixed dry with sand in the proportion of 1:1 ½.

(c) The mix of cement and sand shall than be mixed dry with stone aggregate to have the proportion 1:1 ½:3.

(d) Clean water shall then be added slowly and gradually while being mixed, to the required quantity to give a plastic mix of the required workable consistency.

(e) The mixing shall be done by turning at least three times to give a uniform and homogeneous concrete.

• Laying:

(a) The level of the surface of the plinth shall be checked longitudinally and transversely.

(b) The top of walls at damp proof course should be laid with frogs of the brick downward.

(c) Side forms or shuttering of strong wooden batten of 2.5 cm thickness shall be fixed properly and firmly on both sides to confine the concrete so that the shuttering does not get disturbed during compaction and mortar does not leak through.

(d) The inner edges of the shuttering shall be oiled to prevent concrete adhering to it.

(e) The surface of the wall shall be cleaned and the masonry shall be wetted by watering before concrete is laid.

(f) The concrete shall be laid within half an hour of mixing and compacted thoroughly by tamping to make dense concrete and levelled both longitudinally and transversely.

(g) After two hours of laying the surface of the concrete shall be made rough an chequered so as to form a key with the wall above.

(h) The damp proof course shall be laid in continuation in one day without any joints.

(i) Joints or breaks if unavoidable shall be given at the sills of the doors or the openings.

(j) If joints cannot be avoided the joint shall be sloped and the sloped surface shall be applied with neat cement wash just before starting concreting on the following day.

(k) Shuttering may be removed after three days.

(l) On removal of shuttering the edges should become smooth without any honey combing.

• Curing:

(a) The damp proof course shall be cured by watering and kept wet for 7 days and the construction of wall above may be started.

(b) The surface shall be cleaned and wetted before masonry is started.

• Painting with Asphalt:

(a) Two coats of asphalt painting may be applied on the upper surface of damp proof course, if specified.

(b) The first coat of hot asphalt at 1.5 kg per sq.m. shall be applied uniformly on the surface when the concrete is dry and the painted surface is blinded immediately with coarse sand and the surface is tamped lightly.

(c) The second coat of hot asphalt at 1 kg per sq.m. should then be applied uniformly and the surface is immediately blinded with coarse sand and tamped lightly.

• 2 cm Damp proof course:

(a) The damp proof course may be of 2 cm thick layer of 1:2 cement and coarse sand mortar with standard water proofing compound at the rate of 1 kg per bag of cement.

(b) The mixing, laying, curing, etc. shall be done in the same manner as above.

The form or shuttering shall be 2 cm thick.

Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C.)

• Steel:

(a) Steel reinforcing bars shall be of mild steel or deformed steel or standard specifications and shall be free from corrosion, loose rust, scales, oil, grease, paint, etc.

(b) The steel bar shall be round and capable of being bent (doubled over) without fracture.

(c) Bars shall be hooked or bent accurately and placed in position as per design and drawing and bound together tight with 20 S.W.G. annealed steel wire at their point of intersection.

(d) Bars shall be bent cold by applying gradual and even motion, bars of 40 mm diameter and above may be bent by heating to dull red and allowing to cool slowly without immersing in water or quenching.

(e) Joints in the bar should be avoided as far as possible. When joints have to be made, an overlap of 40 times diameter of the bar shall be given with proper hooks at end and joints should be staggered. Bigger diameter bars should be joined by welding and tested before placing in position.

(f) While concreting, steel bars shall be given side and bottom covers of concrete by placing precast cover blocks underneath of 1:2 cement mortar of 2.5 cm x 2.5 cm in section and thickness of specified cover, 4 cm to 5 cm for beam and 1 cm to 2 cm for slab.

(g) During laying and compacting of concrete, the reinforcing bars should not move from their positions and bars of the laid portions should not be disturbed.

• Centering and shuttering:

(a) Centering and shuttering shall be made of timber or steel plate close and tight to prevent leakage of mortar, with necessary props, bracing and wedges sufficiently strong and stable and should not yield on laying concrete and made in such a way that they can be slackened and removed gradually without disturbing the concrete.

(b) No plastering shall be made on the concrete surface.

(c) A coat of oil washing should be applied over the shuttering or paper should be spread to have a smooth and finished surface and to prevent adherence to concrete.

(d) For slab and beam, small camber should be given in centering, 1 cm per 2.5 m with a maximum of 4 cm.

(e) Centering and shuttering should not be removed before 14 days in general (4 days for R.C.C. columns, 10 days for roof slab, and 14 days for beams)

(f) The centering and shuttering shall be removed slowly and carefully so that no part is disturbed or damaged.

• Proportion of cement concrete:

(a) Cement concrete shall be of 1:2:4 proportion by volume for slabs, beams and lintels, and 1:1 ½:3 proportion for columns unless otherwise specified.

• Materials:

(a) Cement, sand and coarse aggregate shall be same as for cement concrete.

(b) The stone aggregate shall usually be 20 mm to 6 mm gauge unless otherwise specified.

(c) For heavily reinforced concrete members as in case of ribs of main beams, the maximum size of aggregate should usually be restricted to 5 mm less than the minimum clear distance between the main bars or 5 mm less than the minimum cover to the reinforcement, whichever is smaller.

Where the reinforcement is widely spaced, limitations of the size of the aggregate may not be so important.

• Laying:

(a) Before the laying of the concrete, the shuttering shall be clean, free from dust, dirt, and other foreign matters.

(b) The concrete shall be deposited (not dropped) in its final position.

(c) In case of columns and walls it is desirable to place concrete in full height if practicable, so as to avoid construction joints, but the progress of concreting in the vertical direction shall be restricted to one metre per hour.

(d) Care should be taken that the time between mixing and placing of concrete shall not exceed 20 minutes so that the initial setting process is not interfered with.

(e) During winters, concreting shall not be done if the temperature falls before 4ºc.

(f) Concrete shall be protected from frost and concrete affected by frost shall be removed and work redone.

(g) Concrete shall be compacted by mechanical vibrating machine until a dense concrete is obtained.

(h) The vibration shall continue during the entire period of placing concrete.

(i) Compaction shall be completed before the initial setting time starts, i.e., within 30 minutes of addition of water to the dry mixture.

(j) Over vibration which will separate coarse aggregate from concrete shall be avoided.

(k) After removal of the form work in due time, the concrete surface shall be free from honey combing, air holes or any other defect.

(l) Concreting shall be laid continuously, if laying is suspended for the rest of the following day, the end shall be sloped at an angle of 30º and made rough for future jointing.

(m) When the work is resumed, the previously sloped position shall be roughened, cleaned and watered and a coat of neat cement shall be applied and the fresh concrete shall be laid.

(n) For successive layer the upper layer shall be laid before the lower layer has set.

(o) Structures exceeding 45 meter in length shall be divided by one or more expansion joints.

(p) Structures in which plan dimension changes abruptly shall be provided with expansion joints at the section where such changes occur.

(q) Reinforcement shall not extend across an expansion joint at the break between the sections shall be complete.

• Finishing:

(a) If specified, the exposed surface shall be plastered with 1:3 cement sand mortar not exceeding 6 mm thickness and the plastering shall be applied immediately after removal of the centering while the concrete is green.

(b) Immediately before applying plaster, the surface of concrete shall be kept wet and neat cement wash shall be given.

• Measurement:

(a) Measurement shall be taken in cu. m. for the finished work and no deduction shall be made for the volume of steel.

(b) Steel reinforcement shall be measured under a separate item in quintal.

(c) Plastering, if any, shall not be included in the measurement.

(d) The rate for R.C.C. work shall be for the complete work excluding steel but including centering and shuttering and all tools and plants.

Cement Concrete 1:2:4

• Aggregate shall be inert materials and shall be clean, dense, hard, sound, durable, non-absorbent and capable of developing good bond with mortar.
• Coarse aggregate:

(a) Coarse aggregate shall be of hard broken stone of granite or similar stone, free from dust, dirt and other foreign matters.

(b) The stone ballast shall be of 20 mm size and down and all should be retained in a 5 mm square mesh and well graded such that the voids do not exceed 42%.

(c) The gauge of stone ballast shall be specified depending on the thickness of concrete and nature of work. For building work 20 mm gauge and for road work and mass work 40 to 60 mm gauge may be used.

• Fine aggregate:

(a) Fine aggregate shall be of coarse sand consisting of hard, sharp and angular grains and shall pass through screen of 5 mm square mesh.

(b) Sand shall be of standard specifications, clean and free from dust, dirt and organic matters.

(c) Sea sand shall not be used. Fine aggregate may also be of crushed stone if specified.

• Cement shall be fresh Portland cement of standard ISI specifications, and shall have the required tensile and compressive stresses and fineness.
• Water shall be clean and free from alkaline and acid matters and suitable for drinking purposes.
• The proportion of concrete shall be 1:2:4 as cement:sand:stone ballast by volume unless otherwise specified.
• Minimum compressive strength of concrete of 1:2:4 proportion shall be 140 kg/sq. cm. on 7 days.
• Stone aggregate and sand shall be measured by volume with boxes. Cement need not be measured by box, one bag of cement (50 kg) should be considered as 0.033 cu. m.
• Size of measured box may be 30 cm x 30 cm x 38 cm or 35 cm x 35 cm x 28 cm equivalent to one bag of cement.
• All materials shall be dry, if damp sand is used compensation shall be made by adding additional sand to the extent required for the bulking of damp sand.
• Mixing shall be machine mixing. For small work hand mixing by batches may be allowed.
• Hand mixing:

(a) Mixing shall be done in masonry platform or sheet iron tray.

(b) For concrete of 1:2:4 proportion, first two boxes of sand and one bag of cement shall be mixed dry thoroughly and this dry mix of cement and sand shall be placed over a stack of four boxes of stone aggregate and the whole mixed dry turning at least three times to have uniform mix.

(c) Water shall then be added slowly and gradually with a water-can while being mixed, to the required quantity 25-30 liters per bag of cement, to give a plastic mix of the required workability and water cement ratio.

(d) The whole shall be mixed thoroughly turning at least three times to give a uniform concrete.

• Machine mixing:

(a) Stone ballast, sand and cement shall be put into the cement concrete mixer to have the required proportion.

(b) For concrete of 1:2:4 proportion, first four boxes stone ballast, then two boxes sand and then one bag of cement shall be put into the C. C. mixer, the machine shall then be revolved to mix the materials dry and then water shall be added gradually to the required quantity, 25-30 liters, per bag of cement to have the required water cement ratio.

(c) The mixing should be thorough to have a plastic mix of uniform color.

(d) It requires 1 ½ to 2 minute’s rotation for thorough mixing.

(e) Mixed concrete shall be unloaded on a masonry platform or a sheet iron.

(f) Output of concrete mixer is 15 to 20 mix per hour.

• Regular slump test should be carried out to control the addition of water and to maintain the required consistency. A slump of 7.5 cm to 10 cm may be allowed for building work, and 3 cm to 4 cm may be allowed for road work.
• Formwork:

(a) Formwork centering and shuttering shall be provided as required, as per standard specifications, before laying concrete to confine, to support or to keep the concrete in position.

(b) The inner surface of shuttering shall be oiled to prevent concrete sticking to it.

(c) The base and formwork over which concrete to be laid shall be watered by sprinkling water before concrete is laid.

(d) Forms should not be removed before 14 days in general, side forms may however be removed after 3 days of concreting.

(e) Formworks shall be removed slowly and carefully without disturbing and damaging concrete.

• Laying:

(a) Concrete shall be laid gently (not thrown) in layers not exceeding 15cm and compacted by pinning with rods and tamping with wooden tampers or with mechanical vibrating machine until a dense concrete is obtained. (For important work mechanical vibrating should be used, for thick or mass concrete immersion type vibrators and for thin concrete surface vibrators should be used for compacting concrete)

(b) Over-vibration which will separate coarse aggregate from concrete should be avoided.

(c) After removal of the form-work in due time, the concrete surface shall be free from honey combing, air holes or other defect.

(d) Concrete shall be laid continuously, if laying is suspended for rest or for the following day, the end shall be sloped at an angle of 30º and made rough for future jointing.

(e) When the work is resumed, the previous sloped portion shall be roughened, cleaned and watered and a grout of neat cement shall be applied and the fresh concrete shall be laid.

(f) For successive layer, the upper layer shall be laid before the lower has set.

• Curing:

(a) After about two hours laying, when concrete has begun to harden, it shall be kept damp by covering with wet gunny bags or wet sand for 24 hours, and then cured by flooding with water making mud walls 7.5 cm high or by covering with wet sand or earth and kept damp continuously for 15 days.

(b) If specified curing may be done by covering concrete with special type of waterproof paper as to prevent water escaping or evaporating.

(c) For weak cement concrete 1:3:6, 1:4:8, 1:5:10, etc., stack measurement and hand mixing on a clean, water tight, masonry platform may be allowed.

 (d) For foundation concrete or weak concrete, brick ballast or cheap type stone ballast of 40 mm size may be used.

(e) Approximate quantity of water required for cement may be taken 30% by weight of cement plus 5% by weight of total aggregate. For concrete compacted by mechanical vibrators the quantity of water shall be reduced by 20%.

BIM – Building Information Modeling

Contents

• What is BIM?
• What is 3D, 4D, 5D, 6D and 7D in BIM?
• Software used in BIM
• Benefits of BIM
• Industry Foundation Class
• BIM cloud
• BIM maturity wedge diagram
• BIM in India and abroad
• Drawbacks of BIM

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What is BIM?

BIM is an intelligent model-based process that provides insight to help you plan, design, construct, and manage buildings and infrastructure. – Autodesk

The word intelligent in the above definition means that BIM can store each and every information of the building, whether it may be structural information or it may be architectural information, mechanical information, electrical information, HVAC information, plumbing information and each and every information regarding the building.

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Who can take advantage of BIM?

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What is 3D, 4D, 5D, 6D and 7D in BIM?

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Problems faced when BIM is not used

• Flow of data
• Improper schedule of work
• Cost estimate is tedious and not accurate
• Digitalization of data is less
• Clash detection becomes very difficult to notice
• Reinforcement details in junctions
• Energy analysis

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3D Software used in BIM

 

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Design analysis software used in BIM

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Scheduling software used in BIM

       

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Estimation software used in BIM

 

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Non – BIM software

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Interaction among the AEC professionals due to BIM without any conflict

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Industry Foundation Classes (IFC)

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BIM Cloud

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Drawing based process vs. BIM process

 

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CAD vs. BIM

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Countries making BIM compulsory for big projects/government projects

• United Kingdom
• Norway
• Denmark
• Finland
• Hong Kong
• South Korea
• Netherlands

 

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BIM maturity wedge diagram

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BIM in India

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Reasons for not using BIM in India

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Drawbacks of BIM

• Complexity of software used for BIM
• Cost of software
• Lack of BIM knowledge in India
• BIM course is only available abroad
• The computer system running these software needs high end specifications

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Conclusion

• BIM is promising and more advantageous compared to the traditional process, but still it has several setbacks as the technology is still in primitive stage.
• A significant amount of development is to be done in information flow and interoperability of the software.
• Additional training material is to be provided with software to learn the complicated features.
• In India, universities should start teaching BIM as an academic course to make the people perfect in this field.

 

False Ceiling

 

Intermediate Channel (MF7)

Basic Grid for Gypsum Board False Ceiling Made of Intermediate Channel, Connecting Clip and Strap Hanger

Application of Red Oxide Zinc Chromate Primer to the I-Channels and Laying of electrical pipes above the Intermediate Channel

Figure Showing Fixture Detail at Step (Level Difference at False Ceiling)

Image Showing level difference at false ceiling

Gypsoman – Gypsum Board

Fixing of Gypsum Board to the Intermediate Channel (MF7) with screws

Fixed Gypsum Board

Hi-Tech Gypsum

Mesh Tape

Placing of Mesh tape on joints between Gypsum Boards

After applying Gypsum coats to the Joints

Mesh tape is placed wherever there is a joint in the Gypsum board and then two coats of Gypsum paste (Gypsum powder mixed with water) is applied on the mesh tape. The screw holes are also filled with Gypsum paste.

Approximately 3″ Of Gypsum Board is cut out from the bottom layer and placed perpendicular to it as shown in the image below  

LED Strip Light placed inside the Groove of False Ceiling

Earthwork in Excavation in Foundation

• Foundation trenches shall be dug out to the exact width of foundation concrete and the sides shall be vertical.
• If the soil is not good and does not permit vertical sides, the sides should be sloped back or protected with timber shoring.
• Excavated earth shall not be placed within 1 m of the edge of the trench.
• The bottom of foundation trenches shall be perfectly leveled both longitudinally and transversely and the sides of the trench shall be dressed perfectly vertical from bottom up to the least thickness of loose concrete so that concrete may be laid to the exact width as per design.
• The bed of the trench shall be lightly watered and well rammed.
• Excess digging if done through mistake shall be filled with concrete at the expense of the contractor.
• Soft or defective spots shall be dug out and removed, filled with concrete or with stabilized soil.
• If rocks or boulders are found during excavation, these should be removed and the bed of the trenches shall be leveled and made hard by consolidating the earth.
• Foundation concrete shall not be laid before the inspection and approval of the trench by the Engineer-in-charge.
• Any treasure and valuables or materials found during the excavation, shall be property of the Government.
• Water, if any accumulates in the trench, should be baled or pumped out without any extra payment and necessary precautions shall be taken to prevent surface water to enter in to the trench.
• After the concrete has been laid masonry has been constructed, the remaining portion of the trenches shall be filled up with earth in layers of 15cm and watered and well rammed.
• The earth filling shall be free from rubbish and refuse matters and all clods shall be broken before filling.
• Surplus earth, not required, shall be removed and disposed, and site shall be levelled and dressed.
• The measurements of the excavation shall be taken in cu. m. as for rectangular trench, bottom width of concrete multiplied by the vertical depth of foundation from ground level and multiplied by the length of trenches, even though the contractor might have excavated with sloping sides for his convenience.
• Rate shall be for complete work for 30 m lead and 1.5 m lift, including all tools and plants required for the completions of the works. For every extra lead of 30 m and every extra lift of 1.5 m separate extra rate is provided.
• Excavation in saturated soil or below sub-soil water level shall be taken under a separate item and shall be carried out in the same manner as above.
• Pumping or bailing out of water and removal of slush shall be included in the item.
• Timbering of the sides of trenches if required, shall be under a separate item and paid separately.
• Excavation in different kinds of soil mixed with moorum or kankar or shingle, soft rock or decomposed rock or shale, hard rock, etc., shall be taken under separate items.

 

Six Sigma DMAIC Yellow Belt

10 Benefits of Six Sigma for Civil Engineers

Is a civilization possible without civil engineers? Can defects and wastages be minimised by induction of Six Sigma in construction Industry! Let’s learn more on it …As per recently concluded survey construction industry has become the 2^nd largest industry in India. During the last few years, enormous growth in infrastructure has been found .But how to Minimizing the waste to optimize the profitability is still a concern.

In Construction Industry anything which does not meet requirement is deemed to be called as a “Defect” and here Six Sigma Plays a pivotal role in meeting customer demand, reducing cost borne by the company, avoiding delays. Below are few staggering facts on construction industry:-

1. 91% of the projects are delayed.
2. 94 % of the projects overrun in cost by 15 to 20 %.
3. And round by 99 % of the time expectations don’t meet reality.

All in All main goal of Six Sigma is to manage material, time, manpower and capital efficiently and effectively Six Sigma includes providing:

1. Structured methods of improvement to reduce waste,
2. Shorten production time,
3. Promoting concurrent work, accelerating activities, improving planning and control and ultimately high levels of customer satisfaction.

By following below KPMG Six Sigma, construction industry can improve their profit & good quality of work for:-

1. Better understanding of Project.
2. Time line given to the project.
3. What are the challenges in the project & plans to overcome the same.
4. Safety of the work environment.
5. Better knowledge of market rates.
6. Better understanding of Competitors.
7. What are the major wastes and delays?
8. Where are the defects, reworks?
9. Control & improve the quality of work.
10. Compiles overall investment & benefits.
11. Validate the results & saving after the completion of project.

There should be a lot of scope for Six Sigma in construction as you can statically analyse the way workers perform their site activities, knowing the numbers of skilled workers you have on your team to meet task.

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MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION

Upon completing this module, you will be able to…

• Explain the concept and history of Six Sigma.
• Recognize the advantages of Six Sigma.
• Outline the roles in Six Sigma.
• Explain how the strategy works.
• List the industries where it is applied.

Six Sigma: Concept and History

• Six Sigma – a business strategy that

1. Focuses on product and service excellence.
2. Creates a culture that demands perfection.

• 1986

1. Motorola creates Six Sigma to combat Japanese dominance in business.
2. Recognizes quality as the key to business success.
3. Six Sigma becomes a benchmark of quality measurement.

• 1988

1. Motorola receives the Malcolm Baldrige Quality Award.

• 1993 – 1994

1. Six Sigma is adopted by ABB, Texas Instruments and Allied Signal.

• 1995

1. Allied Signal CEO persuades Jack Welch of GE to try Six Sigma.
2. 1998 in GE – Reported  savings : $ 1 billion
3. 2000 – Predicted savings : $ 6.6 billion

The advantages of Six Sigma are still being touted. It continues to be a way of life in more and more organizations.

• Target – The ultimate target of Six Sigma is a process or product that is virtually free of defects.
• Metric – Six Sigma metrics include all the required key performance indicators across the organization which are measurable and have targets for each of them.
• Philosophy – Its underlying philosophy is to improve customer satisfaction by reducing defects.
• Methodology – The DMAIC methodology is the road map to achieving the target.
• Toolbox – The toolbox is a combination of all these, and comprises the tools to achieve the goal.

Six Sigma: A Breakthrough Improvement

• Six Sigma

1. Breakthrough in business improvement.
2. Not incremental improvement.

• Six Sigma Projects

1. Produce major improvements in process performance in a period of 4 to 6 months.
2. Make significant impact on bottom-line.
3. Impact the way day-to-day business is conducted.

• A Six Sigma mindset permeates the organization, individuals become aware of

1. Non-value added work.
2. Ineffective processes.
3. Poor performance.

• They take action to make the needed improvements

Three Sigma vs. Six Sigma

Six Sigma – Roles and Responsibilities

• Training

1. Essential part of Six Sigma methodology.
2. Encourages teams and team leaders to take responsibility for the processes.

• They have to be trained in the Six Sigma methods.
• Six Sigma has well-defined leadership roles.

1. Each role has its level of expertise.
2. Levels are characterized by the color of the belts.

Some key players involved:

• Process Owners

1. Own the process and lead overall effort.
2. Exist at lower levels, depending upon the business size and core activities.
3. Implement solutions.

• Champions

1. Have courage and ability to create environment to integrate Six Sigma philosophy.
2. Have the vision and ability to lead change.
3. Have ability to produce results.

• Master Black Belts

1. Responsible for strategic implementations within an organization.
2. Train and mentor Black Belts.
3. Help prioritize, select and charter high-impact projects.
4. Maintain the integrity of Six Sigma measurements, improvements and tollgates.
5. Develop, maintain and revise Six Sigma training materials.
6. Qualified to teach other Six Sigma facilitators the methodologies, tools, and applications.
7. Are a resource for utilizing statistical process control within processes.

• Black Belts

1. Heart and soul of the Six Sigma initiative.
2. Lead Six Sigma quality projects and work full time till they are complete.
3. Train and mentor Green Belts.

• Green Belts

1. Trained to spend portion of their time to complete projects.
2. Have the ability to lead projects.
3. Provide project specific knowledge.
4. Help hold the gains.

• Yellow Belts

1. Have basic knowledge of Six Sigma.
2. Do not lead any project on their own.
3. May be responsible for small projects.
4. Participate as a core team member.

How Six Sigma Works

• Six Sigma

1. A data-driven methodology for eliminating defects in any process.
2. Process must not produce more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities.

• Six Sigma Defect

1. Anything outside customer specifications.

• Six Sigma Opportunity

1. Total number of chances for a defect to occur.

• Fundamental focus of Six Sigma

1. Process Improvement.
2. Variation reduction.

DMAIC Simplified Methodology

• D – Develop Team Charter
• M – Determine Baseline Performance
• A – Carry out Data Analysis / Carry out Root Cause Analysis
• I – Prioritize Vital Causes / Propose and Implement Solutions
• C – Monitor and Stabilize Process Improvement

where D and M are Characterization, A and I are Optimization.

• COPC (Customer Operations Performance Center)

1. Certification specifically designed for a BPO or call center organization.
2. A set of key metrics/measurements and training for customer-centric service operations designed to: (a) Improve customer satisfaction through improved service and quality, (b) Increase revenue (for centers that are revenue driven), (c) Reduce cost of providing excellent service.
3. To derive benefits from their synergy, COPC should precede implementation of Six Sigma.
4. Processes: (a) Executed by Six Sigma Green Belts and Black Belts, (b) Overseen by Master Black Belts.

Six Sigma and its Application

1. Administration
2. Human resources
3. Operations
4. Retail
5. Accounts
6. Sales and Marketing
7. And almost Everywhere!!

Summary

1. In Y=f(x), X is Cause, Independent.
2. CTP means Critical to Process.
3. We can apply Six Sigma in every area irrespective of the type of  industry.
4. Six Sigma is a business strategy and is driven by the voice of the customer.
5. If a process is moved from 5 Sigma to 3 Sigma, COPQ will Increase.
6. In the Measure phase of the DMAIC process, we need to know How we are doing.
7. CTQ stands for Critical to Quality.
8. In Y=f(x), Y is Effect, Dependent, Symptom.
9. 5.0 Sigma process will produce 233 defects per million opportunities.
10. The function of a coach in Six Sigma organization is most likely to be filled by Master Black Belt and Black Belt.

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MODULE 2: DEFINE

Scenario

• Before starting the Six Sigma project

1. Define the problem.
2. Define the desired outcome.

• Define phase

1. Helps set project deliverable in line with organization or program’s priorities.
2. Helps every member of the team to have the same understanding of the project.
3. Clears ambiguity.

• A team charter will have

1. A business case.
2. A problem and a goal statement.
3. Project scope.
4. A resource plan.
5. Timeline for completion and review of each step.

• This phase lays the groundwork that allows the team to remain focused

Upon completing this module, you will be able to…

• Develop the team charter

1. Define the business case.
2. Develop a problem statement.
3. Develop a goal statement.
4. Define the scope of the project.
5. Build a resource plan.
6. List out the key milestones.

Team Charter

• Team Charter

1. States what is expected from the team during each stage of the project.
2. Lays down what is expected of the team at the end of the project.
3. Keeps team focused on achieving project deliverable.
4. Transfers project from champion to improvement team.

• Team charter is signed off and issued to project team by sponsor

1. Sponsors projects to different members of team.
2. Is responsible for outcome of these projects.

Business Case

• Business case

1. Presented to the top management.
2. Focuses on defining the financial impact.
3. Is crisp and to-the-point.
4. States reasons necessary for the project to be taken up at that point of time.
5. Address the consequences of foregoing the project (both on customer and organization).
6. States how the project proposes to help achieve the organization’s objectives and targets.

Case Study

• A call center handles

1. Queries related to mobile phones from Samsung customers.
2. Technical and customer service issues.

• Abandonment rate = number of calls dropped off before being answered but put in the queue/total calls received at VDN level.
• Project – To reduce Abandonment Rate (AR) for Samsung Mobiles.
• Reason for the project.

1. The target for abandonment rate is 5%
2. Abandonment rate is 24.02%
3. Direct impact on end-user satisfaction

• Consequences

1. More customer complaints.
2. Lower CSAT scores.
3. Estimated loss from the current AR trend $664,686 P.A

• Proposed action

1. Reduce AR to achieve more revenue and earn goodwill from client.

Problem Statement

• Describe ‘pain area’ of the project.

1. Pain area – area where the problem exists.

• State the problem in a clear and concise manner.
• Address what is specifically wrong, or that what is not meeting the customer’s expectations.
• Clearly state “when” and “where” the problem occurs and “how big” the problem is.
• Example:

1. Incorrect example: Average handling time for the past few months is very high.
2. Correct example: AHT in an airline ticket booking office trended at 14, 15 and 12.2 minutes during October, November and December 2015, respectively.
3. Correct example: Workers in sector four have assembled 82, 79 and 83 dolls per hour during January, February and March 2015, respectively, which does not meet the target of assembly of 100 dolls per hour.

• Impact of the problem should also be included.

1. If AHT is high, what are the other metrics that are affected?

Goal Statement

• An Ideal goal statement should be SMART:

1. Specific
2. Measurable
3. Attainable/Achievable
4. Relevant
5. Time-bound

• At the define phase

1. Set a goal as per customer requirements.
2. As you progress, goal should become specific with measurable targets.

• Goal statement should not

1. Presume causes.
2. Prescribe solutions.
3. Assign blame to other teams or departments.

• If root cause of problem is known, project need not be taken up – problem can be fixed.
• Example of a good goal statement.

1. Reduce AHT to below 8 minutes by the end of April 2016.

Project Scope

• The project scope must

1. State the list of processes the team has to focus on.
2. Define the boundaries of the processes to be improved, including exclusions.
3. Include the start and stop points.
4. Outline the resources available to the team.
5. Be manageable.

• Other additions are

1. Constraints that may impact the team during the project.
2. Time commitment expected from the team.
3. ‘In scope’ and ‘out of scope’ activities in team charter.

Milestone

•  Milestone – a detailed project plan with

1. Key steps.
2. Target completion dates of every phase.
3. Well defined tollgate reviews.

• While setting target dates, be aggressive and realistic.
• Plan should detail how variations in actual duration of each activity will be dealt with to ensure all deadlines are met.
• Team charter will contain only tollgate review dates for each phase of DMAIC.
• Project plan.

1. A live document to be shared between team members and project champion.
2. Should be updated after each review or whenever required.

Resource Plan

• The resource plan has names of

1. Team members
2. Project lead
3. Project coach
4. Project champion

• A separate resource plan document is also prepared with the details of

1. Champion’s level of involvement in project.
2. Roles, responsibilities and authority of team members, team lead and coach.
3. Method of communication between team and champion.

Team Charter Format

• Team charter

1. A  live document.
2. Can be modified during any phase of DMAIC methodology, but only with the approval of champion.

Summary

1. An organized and disciplined approach to problem solving in most Six Sigma organizations is called DMAIC.
2. Six Sigma project methodology normally begins with Define.
3. The process during the Define phase is Develop Team Charter.
4. The problem statement covers Description of pain.
5. A goal statement should follow Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time Bound approach.
6. What is wrong and not meeting customer’s needs is an element of Problem statement.
7. A goal statement must not prescribe a solution.
8. A project charter will contain a business case, which can be defined as A short summary of the strategic reason for the project.
9. The team for a typical Six Sigma project cannot be composed of any interested personnel.
10. The team’s charter describes the team’s Mission, scope and objectives.

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MODULE 3: MEASURE

Introduction

• Aim of Measure phase

1. Collecting accurate data on the current situation.
2. Investigating problem to understand what is happening, when and where.

• This phase ensures that accurate and reliable data is collected to measure current performance related to customers’ CTQs.

Upon completing this module, you will be able to…

• Describe the tools used in determination of process performance.
• Outline the methods to collect data related to the process with a problem.
• Establish a baseline performance level for future comparisons of the process performance.

Process Mapping – Definition

•  Process map

1. Visual representation of process.
2. Shows who and what is involved in a process.
3. Used as a communication tool.

• A good process map

1. Allows people unfamiliar with the process to understand interaction of causes during the workflow.
2. Contains additional information relating to Six Sigma project.

Process Mapping – Need and Benefits

• In the absence of a process map

1. Activities will not be in line with actual process.
2. Output will be different from planned.
3. Confusion and chaos will reign.

• A process map

1. Increases process understanding.
2. Underlines ownership and boundaries.
3. Identifies process sequence, core process bottlenecks, and opportunities for improvement.
4. Clarifies interactions between customer, supplier, management, and operations.
5. Serves as a tool for training and discussion.

Process Map – Elements

• Basic elements of a process map

1. Inputs
2. Process steps
3. Output

• Other elements

1. Measurable parameters
2. Resources

High-Level Process Map

• High-level process map

1. Includes 5-7 steps of processes.
2. Used by a team to work on specific project.

Elements of SIPOC

• Suppliers – Providers of input for the process of being performed.
• Inputs – Materials, resources, or data that require the process to be executed.
• Process– A collection of activities that takes one or more inputs and transforms them into output valuable to the customer.
• Outputs – Products or services that result from the processes performed.
• Customers – Recipients of the output that results from the process performed can be both internal and external.

• SIPOC diagram – a tool

1. Typically employed at the Measure phase.
2. Used by teams to identify elements of a process before work begins.
3. Helps define a complex project that may not be well scoped.

• SIPOC tool is particularly useful when it is not clear.

1. Who supplies inputs to the process?
2. What specifications are placed on the inputs?
3. Who are the true customers of the process?
4. What are the requirements of the customers?

In this example, the department of Forecasting and Capacity Planning  wants to create a SIPOC plan for manpower requirements. The start point of the process is the tentative forecast and the end point is the recruitment by the H R department. Let us understand how the SIPOC has been created: The first process in Forecasting and Planning involves receiving a tentative forecast. The input for this process is the forecast given by the client. So, the client here becomes the supplier. The next process is determining the staff requirements, for which the input is the shrinkage data and the supplier is the operations center. This continues till all the steps of the process are complete and the outputs are ready. In this example the outputs are the manpower indent and the manpower itself. They are handed over to the customers, who are the H R and Program.

Process/Product Drill-down Tree

• Drilling into a question helps you

1. Get a deeper understanding of it.
2. Recognize and understand factors that contribute to it.
3. Link in information not initially associated with a problem.
4. Know exactly where further information is needed.
5. Integrate customer CTQs to project CTQs.

• Steps to use the tool

1. Write down the main problem.
2. List points of next level of detail under main problem.
3. Repeat process for each point.
4. Keep drilling down until you understand factors contributing to the problem.
5. If you cannot break down the problem, carry out necessary research to understand the point.

Example:

Data Collection Plan

• After identifying the problem, start collecting data.
• At the data collection stage understand the variation felt by the customer.
• Data collection plan helps.

1. Understand the purpose for data collection.
2. Know the type of data to be collected.
3. Know the method of collecting the data.
4. Understand the sample.

Example:

• Measure Characteristics

1. Defines characteristics of input/output/process that the team will collect.

• Measure Type

1. Specifies the type of process element for which data is collected.

• Data Type

1. Indicates type of data to be collected.
2. Can be continuous data (example – 1, 1.1, 1.2) or discrete data (example – 1, 4, 15)

• Operational Definition

1. Provides a definition of the measure characteristics.

• Target

1. Specifies target which needs to be achieved for that characteristics.

• Data Collection Form

1. Specifies how and from where the data is collected.

• Sampling

1. Specifies sample size for data collection.

Process Capability Analysis

• To measure baseline performance, the process capability measurement scale is used.
• To calculate process capability of discrete data.

1. Calculate Defects per Million Opportunities (DPMO).
2. Convert DPMO to Yield or Sigma level using Z table.

• Sigma is used as measurement scale because

1. AHT is calculated in units of minutes and seconds.
2. SLA is calculated as a percentage.
3. CSAT has no unit, but is measured as a whole number.

• Only Sigma has a universal measurement scale for all types of characteristics.
• Units (U)

1. Number of parts, assemblies, sub-assemblies, systems, processes, etc., that are inspected/tested.

• Opportunity (OP)

1. Number of characteristics that you inspect or test within the unit.

• Defects (D)

1. Anything that results in customer’s dissatisfaction or a non-conformance.

Example:

Black Boxes indicates Defects in the above figure

• DPU = (Total number of defects / Total number of units) = (9/4) = 2.25 DPU
• TOP = (Total number of units * number of opportunities per unit) = 4 x 5 = 20 opportunities
• Defects per opportunity = (Total number of defects / Total number of opportunities) = (9/20) = 0.45
• Defects per million opportunities = (Defects per opportunity * 1 million) = 0.45 x 1000000 = 450000
• Sigma Value = ZST =1.6

Summary

1. The process to be followed for the Measure phase is Define baseline performance.
2. The tools used in the Measure phase are: Process mapping, Data collection, Process capability.
3. A collection of activities that takes one or more Inputs and transforms them into Outputs that are of value to /customers is called a process.
4. A process flow chart is A map of the system.
5. SIPOC stands for Supplier Input Process Output Customer.
6. Customer is the recipient of the process output.
7. DPMO of a process having 20 defects with total opportunity of 50 is 400000.
8. DPMO stands for Defects per million opportunity.

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MODULE 4: BASIC STATISTICS

Knowledge of statistics is necessary as basic statistical tools are applied to manufacturing, sales and marketing, process, equipment design, and more to improve quality and initiate cost savings right away.

Upon completing this module, you will be able to…

• Define statistics.
• List the types of data.
• Recognize the use of normal curve in the data study.
• Explain descriptive statistics.

Definition – Statistics

• Statistics – mathematical science of collecting, describing, analyzing and interpreting a given set of data.

1. Discrete data
2. Continuous data

Data Types – Discrete and Continuous

• Discrete data

1. Data is discrete if there are only a finite number of values possible.
2. Discrete data occurs when we are counting something using whole numbers.

• Continuous data

1. Makes up the rest of numerical data.
2. Associated with some part of physical measurement.

• To find out – ask if it is possible for the data to take on values that are fractions or decimals, if answer is yes, then it usually is continuous data.

Data Types – Differences

Normal Curve

• In statistics, data is usually represented as curves, diagrams, etc.
• Common representation – Normal curve.
• Normal curve – It is a tool used to tell how far the sample is likely to be off from overall distribution, in the form of a bell.

Example:

A survey has been made of people’s typical daily calorie consumption, and a graph that looks like this has been plotted. Notice that the numbers for people’s typical consumption has turned out to be normally distributed. That is, for most people, their consumption is close to the average. Fewer people eat a lot more or a lot less than the mean or average. Many people obviously are neither surviving on a single serving of rice and dal nor are eating six meals of chapattis and meat. Most people lie somewhere between. Therefore, for a normally distributed data on a graph, the curve would be in the form of a bell as mentioned earlier (see below figure). The X-axis (the horizontal one), shows the calorie consumed and Y-axis (the vertical one) denotes the number of data points for each value on the x-axis. In other words, the number of people who eat x calories.

Basic Characteristics of Normal or Bell Curve:

1. The curve does not reach zero, or the x-axis.
2. The curve is divided into two equal halves with equal portions falling on either side of the most frequently occurring value.
3. The peak of the curve represents the centre of the process.
4. Area under the curve represents 100% of the product the process is capable of producing.

Mean

The most commonly used method of describing central tendency. To calculate the mean, you add all the values and divide it by  the number of values. (Calculation of Mean of scores = 45+34+37+42+40 = 198/5 = 39.6) So, while ‘mean signifies ‘average’, standard deviation shows the relation that a set of scores has to the mean of the sample. When the scores  are tightly bunched together and the bell-shaped curve is steep, the standard deviation is small. When the scores are spread apart and the bell curve is relatively flat, that means you have a relatively large standard deviation.

 

Example 1:

Computing the value of standard deviation is complicated, but let us look at this example of a normal curve using the mean X bar.

One standard deviation away from the mean X bar in either direction on the horizontal axis side accounts for around 68.26% of the people in this group.

Two standard deviations away from the mean X bar account for roughly 35.46% of the people and three standard deviations account for about 99.73% of the people.

Example 2:

Let us take another example of a bell shaped curve for the Average Handling Time, or AHT, of calls.

The normal curve has a mean or average of 24 minutes. You can see the peak of the curve is the highest at that point. The standard deviation is 4 on either side of the horizontal axis. The area within one standard deviation, which is 20 to 28 minutes, accounts for 68.26%% of the given set of data. The area within two standard deviations accounts for roughly 95% of the data between 16 and 32 minutes of the average handling time. The area within three standard deviations accounts for about 99% of the data, which lies between 12 and 36 minutes at AHT.

Distribution and its Types

This figure shows a normal distribution, referred to as a bell shaped curve. There is a single point of central tendency and the data is symmetrically distributed about the centre (Mean) with no skewness. In normal or symmetric distribution, mean, median and mode are all the same.

• Distribution is an arrangement of values of a variable showing their observed or theoretical frequency of occurrence.
• Central tendency refers to the middle value and is measured using mean, median, and mode.
• Median is the score found at the exact middle of the set of values.
• Mode is the most frequently occurring value in the set of scores.
• Example: Median – 15  15  15  20  20  20  22  24  36 and Mode – 15  15  15  20  20  20  22  24  36. Therefore, Mean = 20.876, Median = 20 and Mode = 15.

Sometimes processes are naturally skewed. A distribution is skewed if one of its tails is longer than the other. Distribution when positively skewed are said to be ‘skewed to the right’. Similarly, distributions negatively skewed are said to be ‘skewed to the left’.

In a right skewed distribution, the data is less in the right tail than that expected in a normal distribution.  Similarly, for a left skewed distribution, it means less data is in the left tail than expected in a normal distribution. For left or right skewed data, the median is between the mode and the mean.

Descriptive Statistics

• After data is collected, there is a need to analyze and interpret the data centre and its spread. This analysis is done using a tool known as descriptive statistics.
• Descriptive statistics is used to present data in a manageable form. For example, a simple number denoting batting average summarizes how well a batsman is performing in cricket. The single number describes a large number of discrete events. For a large number of continuous data consider the Grade Point Average (GPA) of a student. This single number describes the general performance of a student across a wide range of course experience.
• With descriptive statistics, you do run a risk of distorting the original data or losing some important detail. This is because a large set of observations are described with a single number. However, even given these limitations, descriptive statistics provides an effective summary that enables comparisons across people or other units.
• Minitab is an application that gives the output of a given set of data both graphically and in the form of text, depending upon the type of tool being referred.

Example:

Let us consider the example of the day wise Average Handling Time or AHT in a call center to get a statistical summary of the data.

• Open Minitab

• Click Stat on the Menu Bar, then click Basic Statistics and Graphical Summary.

• The Graphical Summary window is displayed.

• Double click C1 and the variable ‘Daywise AHT’ is displayed in the Variables box. The Confidence level of 95.0 is displayed by default. Click OK.

• The graph of the Summary for the Day wise AHT is displayed.

• By looking at the graph, we cannot confirm whether process is normal or not.

1. Hence look at a number known as the ‘P-value’.
2. If “P-Value is greater than or equal to 0.5” – process is normal.
3. If “P-Value is less than 0.05” – process is not normal.

• Further analysis for a specific data can be undertaken only if process is normal.
• If the process is not normal, stratify data based on type and then check for normality of process before analysis.

Summary

1. Offered calls is not continuous data.
2. Queue time and Handle time are not a discrete data.
3. One would normally describe recorded values which reflect length, volume and time as Measurable, Continuous and Variable.
4. Talk time, Hold time and Wrap time are continuous data.
5. Number of agents in a product line, Forecast calls ans Number of quality reps in a program.
6. The percentage of data that can fall within plus or minus 2 standard deviations is 95.46%
7. The percentage of data that can fall within plus or minus 1 standard deviation is 68.26%
8. The percentage of data that can fall within plus or minus 3 standard deviation is 99.73%
9. If a process has 14 minutes as mean and 1 minute as standard deviation, the interval where 95% of data can fall is 12 – 16 minutes.

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MODULE 5: ANALYZE

• Basic objective of Analyze phase

1. To establish an improvement goal that focuses on improvement of existing performance.
2. Recommendations for the next phase.
3. To ensure that the goal set is achieved in given timeframe.

Upon completing this module, you will be able to…

• Recognize the importance of the Analyze stage.
• List the various tools used for analysis.
• Drill down to the X for an identified issue.
• Explain each of the tools in depth.

An Introduction – Analyze Phase

Tools for First Stage – Histogram

• A graphing tool that displays relative frequency/occurrence of continuous data values showing which values occur most, and least frequently.
• Categorized by three constituents

1. Centre (Mean)
2. Width (Spread)
3. Overall shape

• Similar to bar chart but has differences

• Histograms are used

1. To interpret data on the basis of its shape.
2. To verify whether the process meets customer’s requirements.
3. To analyze output of a supplier.
4. To compare before and after outputs of a process after an improvement activity has been initiated.

• Histograms are based on different distributions resulting in various shapes. Each shape signifies something different, which helps you interpret the data better.
• There are about six types of distribution.

1. Normal distribution – In this the data is distributed symmetrically on both the sides from the mean line, mean being the peak bar in the chart. The shape of the histogram is bell-shaped.
2. Skewed distribution – This type of distribution occurs when the data is skewed either towards the right or towards the left of the chart.
3. Double peaked or Bimodal distribution – The bimodal distribution looks like the back of a two-humped camel. It indicates that data, from more than one process have been combined together. Example: – Materials may have come from two separate vendors or samples may be from two or more separate machines.
4. Comb distribution – The comb or edge peak distribution looks like the normal distribution except that it has a large peak at one tail. Usually this indicates a measuring problem due to improper gauge readings or a gauge that is not sensitive enough for readings.
5. Plateau or Multimodal distribution – As there are many peaks close together, the top of the distribution resembles a plateau. These types of distributions occur when the data collected has a mixture of data from different sources.
6. Truncated or (Heart-cut) distribution – The truncated distribution looks like a normal distribution with the tails cut off. Such a type of distribution occurs when the data collected has specification limits.

• Histograms can be created in Excel or by using the Minitab software.

Example: Let us first learn how to create a hologram in Excel using Histogram tool of  analysis, an add-in module. Using a sample table of students and their test scores, let us explore how the Histogram tool works in Excel. The scores have been broken down at 50-point intervals (taking the highest and lowest scores as outer ranges). They are arranged in ascending order in column D.

• Let us start the Histogram tool by clicking Data Analysis on the Tools menu.
• Select Histogram.
• The Histogram dialog box will be displayed.
• Input range is the location of the input data in the Excel worksheet. The input range in our example is cells D2:D15.
• Bin range is the range against which we are going to draw a Histogram. The location of bins, that is, the bin range in our example is cells F2:F15.
• Note: If the Bin Range box is left blank, the Histogram tool automatically creates evenly distributed bin intervals. The number of intervals is equal to the square root of the number of input values. However, it is advisable to create your own Bin Range.
• Output location is the upper left cell of the range where the analysis is to appear. In our example, the output range is in cell G1. Output can also be placed in another worksheet or workbook.
• Display of the output – In our example, we select Chart Output. Output can be sorted or displayed in cumulative percentages.
• The Histogram tool analyzes all the input information, calculates the output, and displays it in column G and H.

• This analysis tells us that one score is less than 950, three scores are between 950 and 1000, 6 are between 1000 and 1050, and so on.

Creating Histogram using Minitab software:

• First, click Graph on the Menu bar. Then select Histogram.
• A window is displayed with all the types of histograms. Select Simple, and click OK.

• The Histogram Simple window is displayed.

• Double click C1, and the variable is displayed in the Graph Variables area. Click OK.

• A day-wise AHT Histogram is displayed.

Tools for First Stage – Pareto effect

• Pareto effect

1. Named after Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian economist, who concluded that 20% of people controlled 80% of a society’s wealth.

• Pareto Charts display two main principles:

1. Vital Few Trivial Many – identify vital few causes out of all the causes identified.
2. 80% of the problems are due to 20% of the causes.

• Pareto charts – used to

1. Analyze the data on the frequency of problems or causes in a process.
2. Analyze broad causes by looking at their specific components.
3. Focus on the more significant problems when there are too many of them.
4. Communicate status to others.

• Other areas of use

1. Breakdown big problems into smaller parts.
2. Identify most significant factors.
3. Identify areas to focus efforts.

Creating Pareto chart using Minitab software:

• When the Minitab tool is used for drawing a Pareto chart, there is no need to put the data points in ascending or descending order, unlike in Excel.
• Now let us create a Pareto chart for issue codes and defects identified along with the frequency.
• Click Stat on the Menu bar.
• Select Quality Tools, and then select Pareto Chart. 

• The Pareto Chart window is displayed. 
• Select Chart defects table. The “Labels in” and “Frequencies in” options are enabled.
• Double click C1 and C2 for the “Labels in” and “Frequencies in” boxes to be populated respectively.
• Now click OK. 

• The Pareto Chart of Issue Code is displayed.
• Benefits of Pareto Chart

1. Quantitative tool used to determine the segmented areas of focus.
2. Graphically displays the most frequent occurrence of outcomes (little y’s).
3. Helps get from Big Y to the little y.

Tools for First Stage – Stratification

• A technique used to analyze or divide a universe of data into homogenous groups or strata.
• Involves

1. Looking at the data.
2. Splitting it into distinct layers.
3. Analyzing it to see the different patterns.

• Stratifying data

1. Separation of data into categories.
2. Needs to be done repeatedly.
3. Stratify at one level.
4. Within categories of that level, stratify again.

• By sorting data into multiple levels of groups with shared characteristics, you can pinpoint root cause of a problem.
• Stratification is used in combination with

1. Histograms
2. Pareto charts
3. Bar charts
4. Pie charts
5. Cause and effect diagram – (a) To build a tree of branching characteristics, (b) Each one stratified further until root causes are reached.
6. Characteristic used to separate data – stratification variable.

Example:

Here is some data from a call center. It relates to the QA scores of two teams – the ‘New Hires’ and ‘Tenure’. The ‘Tenure’ team comprises people who have been with the company for some time. Let us plot the data and study the stratification by creating a histogram.

• Open Minitab. 
• Click Graph on the Menu bar.

• Then click Histogram.

• The Histograms window is displayed. From the options displayed in this window, select With Fit, and Click OK. 
• This brings up the Histogram – With Fit window. Double click C1 and C2, and the variables are displayed in the Graph Variables area. 
• Next, click the Multiple Graphs button and the Histograms – Multiple Graphs window is displayed. Select In separate panels of the same graph, and click OK.
• The Histogram – With Fit window is once again displayed. Click OK once again. 
• The graph displayed throws up the differences between the two sets of data, enabling easy comparison.

Tools for Second Stage

• Tools used in the second stage of the Analysis phase

1. Brainstorming
2. Cause and Effect Diagram
3. Control Impact Matrix
4. 5 Why Analysis

Tools for Second Stage – Brainstorming

• Brainstorming

1. A lateral thinking process to generate unconstrained ideas.
2. Elicits involvement of team members affected by the problem.
3. Facilitates creative thinking.
4. A two – pronged approach: (a) To identify the root cause, (b) To get different solutions for the problem.
5. A short-term activity that needs to be scheduled.
6. Produces ideas and solutions with stipulated time frame.
7. Separates idea generation from organizing of the ideas generated.

• Do’s in Brainstorming:

1. Define the exact issue, topic or business area under focus.
2. Allow every individual to complete his/her train of thought.
3. Build upon ideas generated or create new ones based on them.
4. Ideas generated should be crisp, and clear.
5. Evaluate, validate, and categorize ideas only after the session is completed.
6. Encourage as many ideas as possible as every idea is a good idea.

• Don’ts in Brainstorming:

1. Do not use idea assassins.
2. Do not make any visual or verbal judgements when ideas are offered.
3. Do not paraphrase any idea when an individual suggests an idea.
4. Do not let any individual dominate the session.

Tools for Second Stage – Cause and Effect Diagram (CED)

• After ideas are collected, organize and categorize them using cause and effect diagram (also called Ishikawa diagram or fishbone diagram)
•  The concept of CED is that the name of a basic effect is entered at the head of the fish.
• The main possible causes of the problem or the effect are drawn on the bones of the fish.
• The “Six-M” categories typically used as a starting point are manpower, machine, method, material, measurement, and mother nature. You can use different names to suit the problem at hand, or revise these general categories. 
• There are three to six main categories that encompass all possible influences.
• Brainstorming is typically done to add possible causes to the main “bones”, and more specific causes to the “bones” on the main “bones”.
• The sub-division continues as long as the problem areas can be further subdivided.
• The depth of this tree is usually about four or five levels.
• When the fishbone is done, a complete picture of all the possibilities about the root causes for the designated problem can be viewed. Then, causes to be acted upon are circled, and thus the use of tool is complete.

Example:

Let us now study an example of CED for the problem of “Poor Soft Skills” in the organization. “Poor Soft Skills” is the key problem, shown in the head of the fish in the figure below. The four different categories of the ideas generated during the brainstorming session are language skills, courtesy or empathy, clarity, and listening skills. Each of these causes is places, accordingly, on the different bones of the fish. These causes are then further divided into sub-causes. For example, language skills are sub-divided into choice of words, phrasing of sentences, and speaking at customers’ level. Similarly, the causes of problems in clarity are bad accent, pronunciation or the speed at which the employee speaks. Thus, after examining all the causes, a decision is taken pertaining to root cause of the poor soft skills problem.

• Benefits of CED:

1. Helps determine the root causes of a problem using a structured approach.
2. Encourages group participation, and utilizes group knowledge of the process.
3. Uses an orderly, easy-to-read graphic format to display the cause-and-effect relationships.
4. Helps locate the little ‘y’ from under the big ‘Y’
5. Indicates the possible causes for variation in a process.
6. Increases knowledge of the process by helping everyone to learn more about the factors at work, and how they relate to each other.
7. Identifies area where data should be collected for further study.

Tools for Second Stage – Control Impact Matrix

• To validate causes – use “Control Impact Matrix”

1. Used to prioritize causes in conjunction with CED after they have been captured/listed.
2. Causes/factors are prioritized by looking into each factor to see whether they are within your control, and impact of that factor on problem. 

• The first quadrant in the above figure consists of the factors that have a very high impact on the problem. However, the good news is that they can be controlled. Naturally, it follows that this area comes under close scrutiny. If these factors are controlled, the problem automatically diminishes or disappears.
• The second quadrant contains factors that can be controlled, but their impact on the problem is not very strong. These factors may be given a lower priority.
• The third quadrant holds factors that affect the problem in a major way but they are not within control.
• The fourth quadrant consists of factors that are outside your control, but their impact on the problem is low. These factors can just be listed but no action can be taken.

Tools for Second Stage – Five Why Analysis

• Once factors are prioritized

1. Pick out causes that are within your control and have a high impact on the problem.
2. Use “5 Why Analysis”

• This tool – used to identify potential root cause by drilling down deep into the process.
• By repeatedly asking “Why” you can peel away layers of symptoms that can lead to root cause.
• Often the apparent reason for a problem will lead you to another question.
• For every reason of the question, you need to have a process data for validation.
• You may need to  ask the question fewer or more times than five.

Benefits of 5 Why Analysis:

1. Helps identify the root cause of a problem.
2. Determine relationship between different root causes of a problem.
3. A simple tool that does not require any statistical analysis.

Uses of 5 Why Analysis:

1. Most useful when faced with problems that involve human factors or intersections.
2. Also used in day-to-day business life.

Example:

Here the factor taken up is that of “Language Skills”. You can see in the below figure that the root cause has been found to be ‘Inadequate Training duration for Appropriate Modules’ after asking ‘Why’ 3 times. 

Summary

1. Width or spread of the data is displayed by Histogram.
2. The median for the data – 15, 22, 28, 16, 21, 17, 22, 15, 19, 26, 27, 22 is 21.5
3. “Vital Few Trivial Many” and “80-20 Rule” are the principles of Pareto.
4. Bar chart arranged in descending order of height from left to right is called Pareto.
5. The method of grouping data by common points or characteristics is called Stratification.
6. A structured method of generating unconstrained ideas/solutions is called Brainstorming.
7. Strive for quantity during brainstorming.
8. CED is the tool used to structure a brainstorming session.
9. CED is the tool used after brainstorming to find the potential root cause for a specific problem.
10. An Ishikawa diagram is also known as Cause and effect diagram, and Fishbone diagram.
11. Prioritization on C/I is done based on Control and Impact.
12. The purpose of 5-why analysis is to identify potential causes.

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MODULE 6: IMPROVE

Learning Objectives

• Improve phase – divided into three steps

1. First step – prioritization of vital causes
2. Second step – development of proposed solution
3. Third (and final) step – implementation of proposed solution

• Various statistical tools are used

1. To prioritize vital causes.
2. To develop proposed solution.

Upon completing this module, you will be able to…

• Prioritize the vital causes identified in the Analysis phase.
• Propose solutions for the identified vital causes.

Identify Vital Causes – Scatter Diagram

• To prioritize, validate, and identify vital causes, three statistical tools are needed:

1. Scatter diagram
2. Correlation
3. Regression analysis

• Scatter diagram

1. Visual tool for analyzing relationships between two variables.
2. Mostly used to prove or disprove cause-and-effect relationships.
3. Shows relationships.
4. Does not prove that one variable necessarily causes the other.

Example 1:

• Growing taller may lead to more weight.
• Gaining weight does not indicate growing in height.

Example 2:

• Strong relation exists between number of cavities in primary school children and vocabulary size.
• Both are related to age – but one does not cause the other.

The scatter diagram once plotted may seem to have different forms. It is necessary to establish whether a relationship exists between the two variables or not. Let us see how to interpret scatter diagrams with different forms.

• When you draw a straight line from the data point to the last point and all other data points lie very close to the straight line in such a way that both the variables tend to have an increasing effect, you can say that the two variables have a strong positive relationship.
• In the above figure, there is a strong negative relationship, as the straight line has a different effect compared to the first one. Here, one variable tends to decrease as the other increases.
• Similarly, if the data points lie slightly away from the straight line, it indicates a ‘not very strong’ positive or negative relationship.
• If the data points are scattered all around, then it clearly indicates that there is no relationship between the two variables.
• Sometimes the diagram takes a different pattern, making it necessary to further drill down on the data.

Used when:

1. You believe that there is a relationship between two variables.
2. Data is continuous.
3. You require a fast and easy way to test relationships between two sets of numbers.

Example:

Let us see how to draw a scatter diagram using Minitab. The data selected relates CSAT scores in relation to communication skills.

• Open Minitab.

• Click Graph on the Menu bar, and then Scatterplots.
• From the Scatterplots window that appears, select the Simple type of scatter diagram, and click OK.

• The Scatterplot – Simple window is displayed.

• Double click C1, and CSAT appears in the Y variables column.
• Double click C2, and Communication appears in the X variables column.
• Click OK.
• Note: Here we must be careful while selecting the Y variables, as it gives totally wrong interpretation if the data sets are reversed.

• The Scatterplot of CSAT Vs. Communication is displayed.
• There is a positive correlation between the data points.

Identify Vital Causes – Correlation Coefficient

• Correlation

1. Statistical technique used to show degree/extent of relationship between two variables.
2. Calculates coefficient between each pair of variables.
3. Called “Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient”.

• Purpose of correlations – to make prediction about one variable based on what we know about another variable.
• Correlation coefficient quantifies degree of linear association between two variables.
• Correlation coefficient.

1. Typically denoted by “r”.
2. Has a value that ranges between -1 and +1.
3. The closer “r” is to +1 or -1, stronger the relationship between the two variables.

Example 1:

As temperature rises, ice-cream consumption goes up in exact proportion. The hotter it gets, the more ice-cream is consumed. This is a perfect positive correlation. If you calculated correlation coefficient or ‘r’ for this data, you will get a value +1. A coefficient of -1 means perfect negative correlation, which means that when one variable increases, the other decreases.

Example 2: 

It is obvious from the graph that the longer you spend in your doctor’s waiting area, the less happy you become. In fact, happiness declines in exact proportion, as number of hours spent waiting increases. This is a perfect negative correlation. If you calculate ‘r’ for this pair of variables, you will get a value of -1. A coefficient close to zero means the variables are not related.

Example 3:

In this graph there appears to be no correlation between the two variables. A change in big toe measurement appears to have no predictable effect on the IQ of a person. There is no correlation. If you calculate ‘r’ for this pair of variables, you will get a value of 0 (zero).

• Like all statistical techniques, correlation is only appropriate for certain kinds of data.

1. Works for data in which numbers are meaningful, usually quantities of some sort.
2. Cannot be used for purely categorical data, such as gender, brands purchased or favorite colors.

Example:

Let us see an example where we can find correlation between customer satisfaction scores and various attributes of a call monitoring from Minitab.

• Open Minitab. 
• Click Stat on the Menu bar.
• Then click Basic Statistics and Correlation. 
• The correlation window is displayed. 
• Double click on the required variables for which you need to study the relationships. The variables are displayed in the Variables box.
• The Display p-values option is selected by default.
• Now click OK.
• The correlation of CSAT with the selected variables is displayed.

• Notice that two values are displayed for each pair.
• The value on top indicates the correlation coefficient.
• In this case, the correlation coefficient between time on phone and CSAT is -0.516, and that between communication and CSAT is 0.966
• We can thus conclude that there is a strong positive correlation between communication and CSAT, and there exists a moderate negative correlation between time on phone and CSAT.

Identify Vital Causes – Regression Analysis

• Regression analysis

1. Attempts to discern relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables.
2. Used to build relationship Y = f(x) between two or more variables.
3. May also be used to analyze relationship between two “X’s” or between “Y” and “X”.
4. Objective is to explain variation in the values of the dependent variable. 

• Regression is a hypothesis test

1. “X” is a significant predictor of response “Y”.

• It may be used to analyze relationships between “X’s” or between ‘Y’ and ‘X’.
• It is powerful but cannot replace process knowledge about trends.
• Regression equation expresses relationship between two (or more) variables algebraically.
• Simple linear regression equation is expressed as

1. Y = bo + b1X1

Where Y = response, bo = predicted value of Y when X1 = O, b1 = slope of line, change in Y per unit change in X1.

• In the graph shown, the null hypothesis is that there is no correlation between the two continuous variables.

Example:

Let us take the data on customer satisfaction scores and communication skills of call center agents and calculate the regression equation using the Minitab software to find out the relationship between them.

• Open Minitab. 
• Click Stat on the Menu bar.
• Click Regression, and then Regression again. 
• The Regression window is displayed.

• You can select the response and predictors.
• Click OK.

• The Minitab output contains the regression equation, R-Sq (adj) and P Value.
• It shows the relationship between CSAT and communication skills. 
• We can predict CSAT from the equation if the communication skills score is known.
• The R-Sq value quantifies the extent to which the regression equation can predict the CSAT.
• Here as the R-Sq (adj) is 92.9% which is above the acceptable percentage of 80%, the regression can be used for prediction.
• The P Value indicates the statistical significance of the relationship.
• As P Value here is less than 0.05, there is a statistical relationship between the two variables.

Propose Solutions – Pugh Matrix

• Proposed solution should lead to

1. Performance improvements.
2. Benefits to bottom-line.

• Pugh matrix

1.  Created by Dr. Stuart Pugh, a professor from University of Strathclyde (Scotland).
2. Used for evaluating multiple concepts against each other, in relation to a baseline concept known as ‘datum’.
3. Datum can be an existing concept or one among concepts being evaluated, which the team feels is most likely to succeed.

• Criteria are laid down, which are ranked or weighted by importance.
• Each concept is assigned scores relative to criteria, and compared to baseline concept.
• Scores are given as each option is compared with base concept, using signs.

1. ‘+’ – concept is better than the base concept.
2. ‘-‘ –  concept is worse than the base concept.
3. ‘S’ – no change with respect to base concept.

• Selection is made based on consolidated scores.
• Steps to create a Pugh matrix:

1. Choose criteria – The criteria is based on the technical requirements.
2. Form the matrix.
3. Clarify the concept – The team members must understand all  the concepts. New concepts may require a sketch for visualization.
4. Choose the datum concept – Select a design that is among the best concepts available for the baseline or datum.
5. Create the matrix –  Compare every concept to the datum. Use a simple scale to rate the concept. An ‘+’ for a better concept, an ‘-‘ for a worse one and an ‘S’ for a similar one.
6. Evaluate the ratings – Add up  the scores for each category and analyze their contribution to your insight of the design.
7. Decrease the negatives and enhance the positives.
8. Actively discuss the most promising concepts – Eliminate or modify the negative ones.
9. Select a new datum and re-run the matrix – If no concept is a clear winner, a new hybrid can be entered into the matrix for consideration.
10. Arrive at the best solution.

• If further work on matrix is required at the end of first working session:

1. Allow team to gather more information, perform experiments, seek technical knowledge, etc.
2. Repeat entire process to arrive at a new winning concept.
3. Return team to work on the concepts.
4. Re-run matrix for further analysis whenever needed.

• Benefits of Pugh matrix:

1. Effective for comparing alternatives concepts.
2. Scores concepts relative to one another.
3. An iterative evaluation method.
4. Most effective is each member performs it independently and then compares results.
5. Helps compare scores generated and gives insight into best alternatives.
6. Determines proposal that best matches customer requirements.

• Typical situations for use:

1. When only one improvement opportunity or problem must be selected to work on.
2. When only one solution or problem-solving approach can be implemented.
3. When only one new product can be developed.

Example:

In this example, Ritz Carlton has been considered as the datum and the alternate hotels such as The Shangri-La, Jetsons, and Homor Simpson have been evaluated with respect to each criteria. If the alternate hotel has same features for a specific criteria, then we rank them as “S”, if it is superior we give a “+”, and a “-” if worse than the datum. Then the weighted sum of positives and negatives are calculated for each of the alternate hotels.

For example, for Shangri-La, the weighted sum of positives is calculated by adding importance ranking of “Tariff” and “Spa Facilities”, which comes to 4+4=8. We can choose Shangri-La as the best alternate hotel since its weighted sum of positives is the highest compared to the other hotels.

Summary

1. The purpose of scatter diagram is to find the relationship between I/P and O/P variable.
2. Scatter diagram is used to determine what happens to one variable when another variables change value.
3. In the Improve phase of the DMAIC process, we need to know what needs to be done.
4. Assume that a positive correlation exists between X and Y. If X is increasing then Y also increases.
5. Correlation coefficient ‘r’ ranges between +1 to -1.
6. Regression cannot replace process knowledge about trends.
7. Pugh matrix is used to generate the concept and select the best out of them.
8. Assume that a negative correlation exists between X and Y. If X is increasing then Y also decreases.

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MODULE 7: CONTROL

Introduction

• Control phase

1. Brings closure to Six Sigma project.

• Critical steps needed to ensure that gains will be sustained:

1. Create a control  plan to monitor process.
2. Documentation of and training for new process.
3. Transfer of ownership to process owner/champion.

Learning Objective

• Control phase

1. Ensures that process stays in control.
2. Sets up measures to detect out of control situations.

Upon completing this module, you will be able to…

• Outline the concept of the control plan.
• Recognize the uses of control charts.
• Understand the use of each type of chart.

Control Plan

• A typical control plan:

1. Has a summary of all control activities for the process.
2. Lists control activities yet to be implemented.
3. Identifies process gaps in current process.
4. Includes a training plan to ensure smooth transitions as well as a process auditing system.
5. Identifies person responsible for control of each critical variable.

• Intent of a control plan:

1. Run process on target.
2. Meet customer requirements.
3. Minimize variations about target.

• Purpose of a control plan:

1. Institutionalize process improvements.
2. Highlight areas requiring extra education.
3. Provide one-stop step for control information.

Example:

In this example, the process step to be controlled is training delivery, and the critical input identified for this process step is training schedule. The output of this process step is percentage adherence to training schedule. The Sigma level for this process step has been calculated to be 3.5 Sigma. Training of the training adherence is done using the training tracker.  For this process step, repeatability and reproducibility are not applicable as there is no measurement gauge for measuring this metric. As adherence needs to be tracked on a real time basis for all batches, the sample size in this case is 100%, and the sample frequency is every batch conducted. Next we need to identify a method to monitor the schedule adherence during training, so that any deviation from the plan is highlighted. The control method identified in this case is the publishing of the training MIS by the process owner, who is also the training coordinator. The training coordinator would be reviewing the MIS for any deviations against the specifications. All such deviations would be escalated to the training head, so that necessary actions are taken to keep the process under control.

Control Charts

• Control plan – Plan for action to be taken.
• Control charts:

1. Graphical representation of process data.
2. Determine whether process is under control or out of control.
3. Used by process owners for online monitoring and control of process.
4. Help process owners to steer process, giving alerts as and when required.

• Difference between control charts and other graphical tools:

1. Data in control chart is plotted on a time ordered basis.

• A typical control chart has three basic components:

1. A centerline, the mathematical average of all samples plotted.
2. Upper and lower statistical control limits that define the constraints of common cause variants.
3. Performance data plotted over time.

• Data is:

1. Collected from process on equally spaced time intervals.
2. Plotted in the same time order.
3. Scattered between control limits.

• When the data points cross control limits or if any abnormal patterns are seen, it indicates:

1. Process is out of control.
2. Action needs to be taken.

• Control charts:

1. Easy to use and understand.
2. Can be directly used by frontline agents.
3. Act as traffic signal and help in performing process consistently and in a more predictable manner.
4. Help in identifying and distinguishing between common causes and special causes of variations
5. Help achieve higher quality of work with low costs and higher effective capacity.

• Charts are broadly classified according to quality characteristic they monitor: 

Control Charts – Appropriate Selection

Flow diagram which serves as a basic guide in selecting the apppropriate control chart for the different situations:

Let us look at the variable chart first:

• Type of control charts to be used for variable data depends on possibility of sub-grouping.
• Collecting data at specified interval of time on a daily basis at same interval -> sub-grouping.
• X bar R chart

1. If data collected can be sub-grouped, use X bar R chart.

• Individual and Moving range:

1. If sub-grouping is not possible, individual and moving range are used.
2. Each data point will have to be plotted to get graphical output.

Now, let us look at the attribute chart:

• Defect:

1. Failure of one or more attributes of a unit to confirm to requirements.
2. For example, dents, scratches, bubbles, cracks.

• Defective:

1. Failure of entire unit to confirm to requirements.
2. For example, a light bulb either works or it does not.

• For selecting appropriate attribute chart, check type of data samples collected – defect type or defective type.
• If sample size of data is variable:

1. For defect type, use U-chart.
2. For defective type, use P-chart.

• If sample size of data is constant:

1. For defect type, use C-chart.
2. For defective type, use np-chart.

Example 1:

• Average Speed of Answering (ASA) is continuous data.

1. Select variable type of control chart.

• As rational sub-grouping is not possible, X bar chart cannot be used.
• Use ‘individuals and moving range chart’ for all variable data.

Example 2:

• Attribute data – so use attribute type control chart.
• Sample size is not constant.
• Fatal call is ‘defective data’, hence use P-chart.

Control Chart – Types

• Variation occurs in all processes

1. Common cause variations – natural part of process.
2. Special cause variations: (a) From outside the system, (b) Cause recognizable patterns, shifts, or trends in data.
3. A process is in control when only common causes affect process output.

Individual and Moving Range Charts

• Individual chart

1. Plot of individual values over time.

• Moving range chart

1. Plot of the moving range.
2. Range is difference between second data point and previous data point.

• I-MR chart is used when:

1. Opportunities to obtain data are limited.
2. Sub-grouping is not possible.

Example:

• Where sampling forms are homogeneous batches.
• When samples have very short term variations.

To get a clearer understanding let us analyze the QA scores taken on different days and find out whether the process is in control or not by drawing an IMR chart using Minitab.

• Go on the Menu bar and click Stat.
• Select Control Charts – Variables Charts for Individuals – I-MR from the drop  down lists.
• The individuals – Moving Range Chart window is displayed.

• Double click C1, and QA Scores is displayed in the Variables field.

• Click OK.
• The I-MR Chart of QA Scores is displayed.

• As all the above observations are randomly distributed without any pattern and falls within the control limits, we can conclude that the process is in control.
• Individuals chart

1. Plots values of each individual observation in order of observation.
2. Provides a means to asses the process center.

• Moving range chart

1. Plots the range calculated from successive observations.
2. Provides a means to assess process variation.

• An in-control process exhibits only random variation within the control limits.
• An out-of-control process exhibits unusual variation, due to the presence of special causes.

Attribute Control Charts

• Attribute data can be classified and counted.
• Two types of attribute data:

1. Defect type of data: (a) U-chart, (b) C-char
2. Defective type of data: (a) P-chart, (b) np chart

• U-charts:

1. Used when data collected in sub-groups of variable sample size.
2. Used when data pertains to defect type of data.
3. Show how process changes over time and determines whether it is in control.
4. Show how the process is measured to assess number of defects per unit of measurement.

Example:

To analyze the number of defects made on the monitored calls, let us draw a U-chart using Minitab, and verify whether the process is in control or not.

• Open Minitab.

• Go to Menu bar and click Stat.
• Select Control Charts – Attributes Charts – U from the drop down list.

• The U Chart window is displayed.

• Click C2, and No. of Defects is displayed in the Variables field.
• Click C1, and No. of Calls Monitored is displayed in the Subgroup sizes field.
• Click OK. 
• The U Chart of No. of Defects is displayed. 

 

• The graph shows a process which is in control.
• An in-control process exhibits only random variation in the number of defects per unit of measurement while an out-of-control process exhibits unusual variation in the number of defects per unit due to the presence of special causes.

• P-Chart

1. Attributes control chart used when data collected in sub-groups is not constant.
2. ‘P’ comes from use of proportion of nonconforming items.
3. Shows a proportion of defective items rather than actual count.
4. Proportion deals with percentage of success, so P-chart describes a success or failure.
5. A study of proportion of defectives determines whether or not the process is in control.

Example:

To analyze the number of defective calls, let us draw a P-chart using Minitab, and verify whether the process is in control or not.

• Open Minitab. 
• Go to the Menu bar and click Stat.
• Select Control Charts – Attributes Charts – P from the drop down lists.

• The P Chart window will be displayed.

• Click C2, and Call Failed due to Fatal is displayed in the Variables field.
• Click C1, and No. of Calls Monitored is displayed in the Subgroup sizes field.
• Click OK.

• The P Chart of Call Failed due to Fatal is displayed.

• The graph shows a process which is in control.
• An in-control process exhibits only random variation in the proportion of defectives per sample while an out-of-control process exhibits non-random variation in the proportion of defectives per sample, which may be due to the presence of special causes.

Note:

C and Np charts are used when the data sample is constant over a period of time. In a service industry the sample size is always variable and sio these charts are not applicable.

Summary

1. AHT and ASA can be used for variable charts.
2. Data of Fatal Calls can be used for attribute charts.
3. If data is variable and sub grouping is possible, Xbar-R chart has to be used.
4. U chart and C chart can be used when the data is defect type.
5. P chart can be used when Sample size is variable and data is defective type.
6. Control charts are used to study process change over time.
7. If data is variable and sub grouping is not possible, I-MR chart has to be used.
8. LCL stands for Lower Control Limit.
9. When a data is falling outside both UCL & LCL, then we can say that the AHT process is having a special cause.
10. If data is defective type, nP chart can be used.
11. We can use C chart when Sample size is constant and data is defect type.
    

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    GLOSSARY

• BB (Black Belt) – A process improvement project team leader who is trained and certified in Six Sigma methodology and tools and who is responsible for successful project execution.
• Brainstorming – A tool used by a group to encourage creative thinking and new ideas. No discussion, evaluation, or criticism of ideas is allowed until the session is complete.
• Business Case – An element of the team charter which defines the financial impact of the project.
• Causality – The principle that every  change implies the operation of a cause.
• C chart – An Attributes data control chart that evaluates process stability by charting the counts of occurrences of a given event in successive samples.
• Cause and Effect (CED) – A tool used to analyze a problem (cause) that contributes to a given situation (effect) by breaking down the main causes into smaller sub-causes. It is also known as the Ishikawa or the fishbone diagram.
• Champion – Individuals who leads a Six Sigma initiative.
• Continuous Data – A type of data that makes up the rest of numerical data and is associated with some sort of physical measurement.
• Control Chart – A tool used to monitor variances in a process over time and alert the business to unexpected variance which may cause defects.
• Control Impact Matrix – A tool used to prioritize the causes in conjunction with CED after they have been captured or listed.
• COPC – Customer Operation Performance Center.
• Correlation – A statistical technique used to  show the degree or extent of the relationship between two variables.
• CTQ (Critical to Quality) – Element of a process which has a direct impact on its perceived quality.
• Data Collection Plan – A plan that lays down the purpose and method of collecting the data, to find out the variance in what the customer wants and what has been produced.
• Descriptive Statistics – A tool used to analyze and interpret the data centre and its spread, after  the data is collected.
• Discrete Data – A type of data that has only a finite number of values.
• Distribution – A distribution is an arrangement of values of a variable showing their observed or theoretical frequency of occurrence.
• DMAIC – Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control.
• DPMO – Defects Per Million Opportunities.
• DPU – Defects Per Unit.
• Five Why Analysis – A tool used to identify the potential root cause by drilling down deep into the process.
• Goal Statement – An element of the team charter which lays down the project’s goal or target that the team has to achieve.
• Green Belt – An employee trained in Six Sigma who spends a portion of time completing projects, but maintains regular work role and responsibilities.
• Histogram – A basic graphing tool showing the distribution of measurement data. It pictorially reveals the amount and type of variation within a process.
• I-MR – Individual – Moving Range Chart. A control chart for variable data that uses individual measurements of a quality characteristic.
• Left Skewed Distribution – In a left skewed distribution, less data is in the left tail of the curve. The mean is on the left and the median is between the mode and the mean.
• MBB (Master Black Belt) – A person who is an “expert” on Six Sigma techniques and on project implementation. Master Black Belts play a major role in training, coaching and in removing barriers to project execution in addition to overall promotion of the Six Sigma philosophy.
• Mean – The average of a group of measurement values, it is determined by dividing the sum of the values by the number of values in the group.
•  Median – The middle of a group of measurement values when arranged in numerical order. If the group contains an even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle values.
• Milestone – An element of the team charter which is a detailed project plan with key steps and target completion dates tied to every phase of the DMAIC process, with well-defined tollgate reviews.
• Minitab – A statistical software package that operates on Microsoft Windows with a spreadsheet format and has powerful statistical analysis ability.
• Mode – The most frequently occurring value in a group of measurements.
• Normal Curve – A statistical tool used to show how far the sample is likely to be off from the overall distribution. The curve is in the form of a bell.
• Normal Distribution – In normal or symmetrical distribution, mean, median and mode are all the same. Data is symmetrically distributed about the centre (Mean) with no skewness.
• nP Chart – A control chart indicating the number of defective units in a given sample. It is used when the data pertains to defective data.
• P Chart – An attributes control chart used when the data collected in sub-groups is not constant and varies from time to time. It is used when the data pertains to defective data.
• Pareto Chart – A bar chart that focuses on efforts or the problems that have the greatest potential for improvement by showing relative frequency or size in a descending bar graph. It is based on the Pareto principle, 20% of the sources cause 80% of any problems.
• Problem Statement – An element of the team charter which describes the problem in a clear and concise manner, and addresses what is specifically wrong or what is not meeting the customer’s expectations.
• Process Capability Analysis – A tool used to measure the baseline performance of a characteristic. It indicates the inherent variation for a given event in a stable process, defined as the process width divided by Six Sigma.
• Process Map – A visual representation which enables participants to visualize an entire process that transforms well-defined inputs into pre-defined outputs.
• Process Owner – Individual who is responsible for a specific process.
• Product Drill-Down Tree – A graphical tool used to show the breaking down of complex problems into progressively smaller parts into different levels of detailed actions.
• Project Scope – An element of the team charter which states the list of processes that the team has to focus on, and the boundaries of the processes that have to be improved, including exclusions.
• Pugh Matrix – A scoring matrix used for evaluating multiple concepts against each other, in relation to a baseline concept known as the ‘datum’.
• Regression – A statistical technique for determining the best mathematical expression that describes the function relationship between one response and one or more independent variables.
• Regression Analysis – A statistical tool that attempts to discern the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. It is used to build the relationship Y=f(x) between two or more variables.
• Resource Plan – An element of the team charter which has the details of the roles, responsibilities and the authority of the team members, team lead and the coach.
• Right Skewed Distribution – In a right skewed distribution, the data is less in the right tail of the curve. The mean is on the right and the median is between the mode and the mean.
• Scatter Diagram – A visual tool for analyzing relationship between two variables.
• SD (Standard Deviation) – A measure that displays the relation of a set of scores to the mean of the sample. A large standard deviation indicates that the data points are far from the mean and a small standard deviation indicates that they are clustered closely around the mean.
• SIPOC – Stands for “Suppliers Inputs Processes Outputs Customers”. A high level process map used to identify all relevant elements of a process improvement project before the work begins.
• Sigma Defect – Anything outside customer specifications.
• Sigma Opportunity – Total number of chances for a defect to occur.
• Six Sigma – A term coined by Motorola to express process capability in parts per million. A Six Sigma process generates a maximum defect probability of 33.4 parts per million (PPM) when the amount of process shifts and drifts are controlled over the long term to less than +1.5 standard deviations.
• SMART – Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant and Time bound.
• Statistical Process Control – Analysis and control of a process through the use of statistical techniques, particularly control charts.
• Statistics – The mathematical science of collecting, describing, analyzing, and interpreting a given set of data.
• Stratification – A technique used to analyze or divide a universe of data into homogeneous groups or strata.
• Team Charter – A formal document that states the expectations from the team during each stage of the project and lays down what the expected outcome will be at the end of the project.
• Team Charter Format – An element of the team charter – it is a live document and can be modified during any phase of the DMAIC methodology, but only with the approval of the champion.
• TOP – Total Opportunities.
• U Chart – An attributes control chart used when the data collected in sun-groups is not constant and varies from time to time. It is used when the data pertains to defect data.
• Variance – A change in a process or business practice that may alter its expected outcome.
• X Bar or Run Chart – Also known as a line chart, or line graph. A chart that plots data over time, allowing an identification of trends and anomalies.
• Yellow Belt – Person who has a basic knowledge of Six Sigma, but does not lead any projects. Responsible for the development of process maps to support Six Sigma.

 

 

 

 

Construction of a 2 Basement+Ground+1 Podium+35 Floor Residential Tower

My Construction Site in Mumbai

As you can see in the above picture, the site is filled with lots of mud and resting on it are two machines viz., Pile driving machine and a Back hoe excavator.

After completion the building will appear like this

In the above picture, the left picture shows how the building will look in day time and on right it shows how it’ll look at night time.

MAIT HR180 Pile Driving Machine in Action!

In the above picture, the left picture shows how the building will look in day time and on right it shows how it’ll look at night time.

There are a total of 135 piles constructed across the perimeter of site to retain the soil from collapsing as the depth of excavation is 11 meter due to Double Floor basement parking. This type of piling is called as Secant Pile Wall or Sore Piling

Steel Reinforcement used in Piling

The steel reinforcement used in each pile is 10 bars of 20 mm diameter. Length of reinforcement bars is 14 meter.

Tubular Pile Case

A tabular pile case is first drawn in ground and with the help of hammering by piling machine, the soil is excavated from inside the pile case by boring through Piling Machine.

Pile steel reinforcement being inserted in the pile hole with the help of piling machine.

Grout Tube Adapter

Grout tube adapter is kept on the pile case after inserting the reinforcement steel cage into it and then concrete is grouted in the pile case with the help of Ready Mix Concrete which is shown in next image.

Figure showing whole process of piling

Preparation for Construction of Capping Beam

Breaking extra concrete on pile for placing Concrete beam on it with the help of JCB HM360 Rock Breaker

P.C.C. being done on both sides of piling for supporting Shuttering of Capping Beam

M10 Grade Concrete is used while laying P.C.C

Figure showing Details of Capping Beam

Capping Beam Steel

 

Applying Oil on Shuttering

Shuttering attached to Beam with Binding wire

Providing Anchorage to Shuttering

Concreting in Progress!

Ready Mix Concrete Truck

Concreting of Capping Beam

M30 Grade Concrete is used while concreting the Grade Beam

Capping Beam after Deshuttering

L&T Komatsu 220 Hydraulic Excavator on Work!

Excavated material ready to be taken to the dumping yard

One Kobelco SK 210 LC excavating the earth and placing it near another Kobelco SK 210 LC

Another Kobelco SK 210 LC picking up the excavated material and transferring it to the dumpers

Excavation in Progress

Pumping out of water trapped in the area enclosed by the shore piles.

Ramp prepared for movement of Construction Machineries on and out of the Excavated Area.

Railing is provided for Safety Purpose

Rock found out at a depth of 6m

Layers of Rock

Rock Breaker attached to Kobelco SK 210 LC Hydraulic Excavator finding out Hard Rock

Sokkia C410 Auto Level is Ready to Use

Front side of Telescopic Leveling Staff

Back side of Telescopic Leveling Staff

Leveling Staff in Position!

Marking done with the help of Red Paint

 

Detailing of Substructure (Elevation) – Not to Scale

Rock Levels (Plan)